Abstract
The article describes the evolution of literary languages for four endangered indigenous languages. Different paths of language standardization and revitalization in the Soviet Russian minority context are illustrated with case studies from Dolgan (Turkic), Forest Enets (Uralic), and Kildin Sámi (Uralic). The three cases offer an excellent comparative view of the origin and progress of literacy creation for small indigenous languages in the Russian Federation. The fourth language Skolt Sámi (Uralic) provides a comparative view beyond the border into the European Union. The different geographical and political settings of language planning attempts for the four languages has resulted in chronologically and substantially different developments. For Dolgan, Forest Enets and Kildin Sámi, the effect standardization has upon language survival has been very similar. In these languages, neither standardization nor the evolving written culture seem to inhibit language shift to any considerable degree. On the other hand, Skolt Sámi in Finland has undergone a slightly more successful process of revitalization, even though the language remains critically endangered.
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Notes
- 1.
Note that in Finland, Norway and Sweden, the Sámi are also officially recognized as one nation, even though more than one Sámi language is spoken (and written) in each of these countries as well.
- 2.
In Russia, “Kola Peninsula” is normally used synonymously with the whole of the Murmansk oblast, rather than in its true geographic meaning.
- 3.
Salo (2011) attempted a systematic investigation of Kildin Sámi language landscapes in Lovozero, but she did only find this one sign.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
Saa´mi Nue´tt ‘Skolt Sámi Net’ http://oddaz.saaminuett.fi/.
- 7.
- 8.
This discrepancy, which is characteristic for most of the 20th and the 21st century, has been dealt with in Siegl (2005), which should be consulted for a more detailed overview.
- 9.
Due to administrative restrictions, Siegl could not conduct primary fieldwork among the last speakers of Tundra Enets and only by chance was able to have several meetings with speakers. Based on such meetings it appears that Tundra Enets is remembered but no longer spoken.
- 10.
Unpublished statistics provided by the local Tajmyrian administration. No data for the neighboring area of Norilsk is currently at our disposal.
- 11.
One page in Forest Enets has been published since 26 March 1998 roughly once a month. Tundra Enets has never been used in the media.
- 12.
Some further classes in Dolgan can be attended at the Institute of the People of the North in Saint Petersburg, whose role in education will be addressed below.
- 13.
It has to be noted, however, that Genetz’s Bible text together with the accurate linguistic documentation carried out during his expedition were valuable sources for later descriptions of these languages.
- 14.
Illiteracy was a general problem in Czarist Russia of the late 19th century and by no means a problem restricted to the Northern and Siberian periphery.
- 15.
This list was expanded several times in the last two decades. Currently, 40 people are listed in this category.
- 16.
The full name was Komitet sodejstvija narodnostjam severnych okrain pri Prezidiume BTsIK, but the short variant “Committee of the North” is generally used.
- 17.
The author is known under a variety of other names from non-Russian publications e.g. Waldemar Bogoraz or Vladimir Bogoraz-Tan.
- 18.
Both Šternberg and Bogoraz were exiled to the Russian Far East in the late 19th century after being accused of supporting anti-Czarist circles. Although both researchers ‘benefited’ from their exile as they collected most of their data on which their later career was based during these years, the ‘revolutionary and anti-Czarist spirit’ was instrumental in their installation in the Committee. Both researchers had good connections to Franz Boas and participated in the Jessup North Pacific expedition. For some further background on Šternberg, Bogoraz and Boas, see Kan (2009).
- 19.
This, of course, created tensions, as the goals of politically motivated young Communist missionaries remained frequently incomprehensible to indigenous people. Occasionally, this resulted in open conflicts and bloodshed in different areas of Siberia; among these, the Kazym uprising of Khantys and Forest Nenets in 1934 is documented best in Leete (2004, 2005).
- 20.
A particularly illuminating account on the principles and hardships of compiling the first Chukchi primer was written by (Bogoraz-Tan 1931). This short description is historically interesting because it reflects the pragmatic approach before the advent of the Great Terror, which seriously altered the status-quo a couple of years later. As Bogoraz died before the advent of the Great Terror, he did not witness this change in policies.
- 21.
Similar unified alphabets were also designed for other peoples of the USSR, especially the Turkic peoples [for a comprehensive study see Baldauf (1993)]. The creation of the UNA was preceded by some cooperation with and under consideration of initial results among the Turkic peoples.
- 22.
A warning is in order: the year of publication does not necessarily indicate that these books arrived in the same year in remote communities or that they were even used at the local level. An obscure case has been reported for a region in the Russian Far East where a shipment for the Nivkh people mistakenly contained textbooks in Romani (Slezkine 1994, 243).
- 23.
- 24.
The dedicated effort to create a Dolgan people clearly distinct from Yakuts seems to be responsible for Soviet and later Russian practices of maintaining two different languages.
- 25.
A former Tundra Enets diaspora in and around Ust-Avam is now extinct but must be taken into account historically. The complicated history of Dolgan living west of these two villages must be excluded here.
- 26.
The sociolinguistic background of Potapovo is closely connected to the deportation history of this village and has been addressed in Siegl (2007a).
- 27.
It is reported that in the 1930s there was indeed an attempt to create a Dolgan primer and a Dolgan orthography. This attempt was initiated by the young Vladimir Nadeljaev, who was working as a teacher of Russian among Dolgan in the Chatanga rajon. Later Vladimir Nadeljaev became a phonetician and worked at the Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk. Anna Barbolina, one of the co-authors of Dolgan textbooks, has spent considerable time in several archives trying to locate the manuscript, but so far without any result.
- 28.
Around the same period, teaching of Yakut was started in the Chatanga rajon, but this attempt was not long lasting either.
- 29.
The following account is based on Ogdo Aksenova’s private correspondence with Valerij Kravec, who translated her poetry into Russian. Their correspondence was published as Aksenova (2001). Additional data available to Siegl is found in an unfinished manuscript on the history of Dolgan literacy written by Anna Barbolina, who is also the co-author of the first primer.
- 30.
It is very likely that this idea could have resulted from her new acquaintances. Many prominent writers from Siberian indigenous peoples have assisted in compiling or have even compiled textbooks. However, this is not mentioned explicitly in her correspondence.
- 31.
During this initial period and especially for the publication of Baraksan, Ogdo Aksenova consulted the Yakut folklorist Prokopij Efremov for help. Efremov, himself a native speaker of Yakut, visited Tajmyrian Dolgan to collect folklore in the 1960s.
- 32.
The exact date is 30 November 1979, although in several documents provided by Anna Barbolina, 20 December 1979 is mentioned instead.
- 33.
Both Ubrjatova as well as Nadeljaev spent several years among Dolgan as Russian teachers in elementary school in the early 1930s. Ubrjatova defended her candidate thesis on Dolgan in 1940, which was later published as Ubrjatova (1985), before she started focusing her work on Yakut.
- 34.
Ogdo Aksenova continued writing poetry, but this is outside the scope of this study.
- 35.
This was largely due to Dar’ja Bolina’s engagement, as she was the driving force behind the first attempts to create literacy for Enets. Being the offspring of a bilingual Nenets-Enets marriage with a clear preference for Nenets, Dar’ja Bolina studied Nenets in St. Petersburg and graduated as a student of Natal’ja Terežčenko. Because of her exposure to science and extended training in Tundra Nenets orthography, Dar’ja Bolina understood the principles of the Tundra Nenets-based Forest Enets orthography best.
- 36.
As writing news for the local newspaper Tajmyr in native languages has been almost always dominated by women, Viktor Pal’čin’s effort is most worthwhile to report.
- 37.
In 2009, a slightly enlarged Forest Enets-Russian dictionary was published by the same authors. The orthographic problems have remained unaltered, unfortunately.
- 38.
For the linguist, such idiosyncratic orthographies contain a wealth of idiolectisms which a strict orthography would erase. For this reason, we are less critical here than language activists themselves.
- 39.
This attempt, originally organized by Viktor Pal’čin, was criticized by several Enets and seen as unnecessary. As late as the summer of 2011, Siegl could observe tensions between several Forest Enets which date back to this particular attempt.
- 40.
Russian čum is the technical term for the traditional conical tent of indigenous people of Russia. ‘Red chum’ (Russian krasnyj čum) was the terminus technicus for party work among indigenous people.
- 41.
- 42.
For larger languages, such as Yakut, such an infrastructure continues to be available.
- 43.
Officially this division was called Murmanskij sektor lingvističeskich problem finno-ugorskich narodnostej Krajnego Severa AN SSSR.
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
During the same period, Dolgan started to take its first steps towards literacy. The other indigenous languages of the Tajmyr Peninsula, Nganasan and Enets, were not considered in education in that period and had no impact at all. Evenki, another language which shares a similar history of literacy with Tundra Nenets, was apparently never taught on the Tajmyr Peninsula in the Soviet period. Also for this language, educational materials have never been created in Dudinka.
- 47.
Acronym for Učebnoe pedagogičeskoe izdatel’stvo ‘Publishing company for education and pedagogy’.
- 48.
Acronym for Narodnyj komissariat prosveščenija ‘People’s Committee on Enlightenment’.
- 49.
Recently Drofa re-printed a revised version of the first Kildin Sámi primer from 1982 (Antonova 2004); several recent Dolgan textbooks were also published.
- 50.
For Dolgan, this was frankly admitted to by one of the remaining authors of the existing teaching materials by the same publishing company has been uttered by a senior author of Tundra Nenets textbooks.
- 51.
For instance the Fond vozroždenija kol’skich saamov ‘Foundation for the revival of Kola Sámi’, mentioned in the publication of Kuruč et al. (1995).
- 52.
Murmanskij oblastnoj centr korennych maločislennych narodov Severa; note that the Sámi are the only officially recognized indigenous group in the Murmansk oblast.
- 53.
Obligatory key words in these texts were revolution the working class, factories, exploitation, class struggle, class consciousness, the First of May, the Red Army, socialism, bourgeoisie and the like.
- 54.
Red Yarangas are the Far East equivalent to Red čums.
- 55.
- 56.
See also Kasten (1998), which is a collection of papers addressing the same problem.
- 57.
This, however, does not imply that this won’t happen in the future.
- 58.
However, as already mentioned, the Dolgan curriculum is not yet fully accredited due to the lack of various teaching materials for higher classes.
- 59.
The local linguist Kazys Labanauskas worked simultaneously on three languages, Nenets, Nganasan and Enets, but concentrated mostly on the first two mentioned.
- 60.
Mrs. Beerle-Mohr from the Institute for Bible Translation, p.c. to Siegl (2003).
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Siegl, F., Rießler, M. (2015). Uneven Steps to Literacy. In: Marten, H., Rießler, M., Saarikivi, J., Toivanen, R. (eds) Cultural and Linguistic Minorities in the Russian Federation and the European Union. Multilingual Education, vol 13. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10455-3_8
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