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Comparing Living Arrangements of Immigrant Young Adults in Spain and the United States

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Spatial Mobility, Migration, and Living Arrangements

Abstract

How and with whom young adults live is associated with their socioeconomic status. Migration experience further shapes preference and opportunity in choosing one’s living arrangement. Given limited literature on immigrant young adults living arrangements especially in a comparative perspective, this paper investigates the issue comparing Spain and the United States. Based on the 2000 US Census and the 2001 Spanish Census, the paper compares four forms of living arrangements (living alone, living with parents, living with a partner/spouse, and living in an extended family) between immigrants and the native-born and among immigrants in the two destination contexts. We focus on the role of age at migration and country of birth in living arrangements. The sample includes young adults aged 18–35 years and in the case of immigrants: those who migrated at age 1–16 years (n = 518,882 natives and 7,620 immigrants in Spain; 1,836,401 natives and 192,205 immigrants in the United States). Using multinomial logistic regression and controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, it is found that immigrants’ living arrangements are more similar to those of the natives than to those of the same immigrant group in the other destination country. Immigrant young adults in Spain have more similar living arrangements to the native-born in Spain than to their fellow immigrants in the United States. There remains however substantial variation by age at migration and country of birth, with those migrated at young age and those born in Western Europe having the most similar living arrangements to the natives both in Spain and the United States.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Note that there are slight different definitions in the Spanish 2001 Census and the U.S. 2000 Census. In the Spanish 2001 Census, the resident population refers only to individuals whose regular residence is located in Spain when the census is performed (de jure population). A household refers to a group of persons resident in the same family dwelling, that is excluding dwellings which are used exclusively for other purposes such as offices, workshops and warehouses (INE 2001). In the 2000 U.S. Census, the population to be included in the census refers to individuals whose usual residence was in the United States regardless of the person’s legal status or citizenship. Usual residence refers to the place where the person lives and sleeps most of the time regardless of his/her legal residence or voting residence (U.S. Census Bureau 2003).

  2. 2.

    In principle it would be worth including three more categories of living arrangements, namely, living as a single parent (with (a) child(ren) without a partner/spouse), living in parental home (marital status is married, divorced, widowed), living with other (non-kin members). We include these categories in the descriptive analysis but not in the multivariate analysis because the proportion of individuals living in such living arrangements is too small to perform a meaningful statistical analysis.

  3. 3.

    We do not distinguish between marriage and cohabitation because particularly for the United States, cohabiting with an unmarried partner has become a common reason for leaving parental home.

  4. 4.

    The exception is for the association between educational attainment and the likelihood of living with partner/spouse for Other natives. For this group, the higher the educational qualification, the lower the chance of living with partner/spouse similar to the immigrant population.

  5. 5.

    Note that the causal direction can be reversed. Living in an extended family means a larger share of household resources between generations and among relatives. Thus, an individual growing up with extended family might have less chance to invest in their human capital because the household might decide to use economic resources for other household members.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political and Social Sciences and RECSM, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Carrer Ramon Trias Fargas 25/27, 08005, Barcelona, Spain

    Bruno Arpino

  2. Wittgenstein Centre for Demography and Global Human Capital (IIASA, VID/ÖAW and WU), Vienna Institute of Demography, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

    Raya Muttarak

  3. Social Statistics and Demography and ESRC Centre for Population Change, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

    Agnese Vitali

Authors
  1. Bruno Arpino
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  2. Raya Muttarak
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  3. Agnese Vitali
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bruno Arpino .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Social Sciences, Bremen University of Applied Sciences, Bremen, Germany

    Can M. Aybek

  2. Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany

    Johannes Huinink

  3. Wittgenstein Centre for Demography and Global Human Capital (IIASA, VID/ÖAW and WU), Vienna Institute of Demography, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

    Raya Muttarak

Appendices

Appendices

1.1 Appendix 8.A: Multinomial Logistic Regression Estimates of Living Arrangements for Black and Other Natives in the United States (Baseline Comparison: Living With Parents)

 

Black natives

Other natives

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

Living alone

Men

−0.391

0.016

−0.126

0.022

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

1.661

0.021

1.692

0.028

Age: 30–35

2.489

0.023

2.707

0.032

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

0.563

0.027

0.567

0.040

Tertiary-level education

1.243

0.034

1.266

0.046

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.525

0.017

0.598

0.026

In school

3.018

0.128

2.908

0.163

Constant

−2.649

0.029

−3.320

0.043

Living with partner/spouse

Men

−0.605

0.012

−0.805

0.014

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

2.172

0.016

2.261

0.017

Age: 30–35

3.249

0.018

3.487

0.023

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

0.385

0.018

−0.082

0.019

Tertiary-level education

0.197

0.026

−0.517

0.028

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.558

0.013

0.403

0.015

In school

3.598

0.120

3.316

0.143

Constant

−1.592

0.019

−0.758

0.020

Living with extended family

Men

−0.716

0.011

−0.516

0.013

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

0.906

0.013

1.046

0.016

Age: 30–35

1.464

0.016

1.699

0.023

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

−0.160

0.014

−0.376

0.016

Tertiary-level education

−0.787

0.025

−1.179

0.028

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.092

0.011

0.112

0.013

In school

1.517

0.126

1.540

0.151

Constant

0.494

0.014

0.434

0.017

Log likelihood (df)

−309,964.06 (21)

−206,599.95 (21)

N

270,495

188,355

  1. Source: 2000 U.S. Census and 2001 Spanish Census (IPUMS-I)
  2. Note: Statistically significant results at least at the 0.05 and 0.10 level are highlighted in bold and italicized respectively

1.2 Appendix 8.B: Multinomial Logistic Regression Estimates of Living Arrangements in Spain and the United States (Baseline: Living With Parents), Natives and Immigrants Combined

 

Spain

United States

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

Living alone

Men

−0.123

0.087

−0.060

0.023

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

1.058

0.126

1.639

0.030

Age: 30–35

2.098

0.130

2.699

0.034

Age at migration (ref: native)

Age at migration: 1–6

0.058

0.105

−0.368

0.033

Age at migration: 7–12

0.344

0.120

−0.614

0.035

Age at migration: 13–16

1.209

0.129

−0.344

0.036

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

−0.189

0.095

0.419

0.041

Tertiary-level education

−0.206

0.136

1.117

0.045

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.626

0.127

0.533

0.027

In school

−0.016

0.154

3.051

0.186

Constant

−3.516

0.164

−2.932

0.053

Living with partner/spouse

Men

−0.886

0.053

−0.749

0.014

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

2.027

0.093

2.316

0.018

Age: 30–35

3.685

0.095

3.829

0.024

Age at migration (ref: native)

Age at migration: 1–6

0.240

0.060

−0.373

0.023

Age at migration: 7–12

0.220

0.074

−0.414

0.023

Age at migration: 13–16

0.758

0.091

0.003

0.024

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

–0.533

0.056

–0.685

0.018

Tertiary-level education

−1.188

0.090

−1.014

0.025

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.024

0.065

0.259

0.015

In school

−1.049

0.090

3.209

0.168

Constant

−1.846

0.102

−0.081

0.027

Living with extended family

Men

−0.320

0.049

−0.298

0.013

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

0.075

0.058

1.069

0.015

Age: 30–35

0.641

0.069

1.865

0.023

Age at migration (ref: native)

Age at migration: 1–6

0.395

0.062

0.433

0.024

Age at migration: 7–12

0.799

0.065

0.721

0.024

Age at migration: 13–16

1.637

0.073

1.222

0.024

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

−0.558

0.053

−0.820

0.016

Tertiary-level education

−0.971

0.098

−1.565

0.025

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

−0.046

0.063

0.218

0.013

In school

−0.481

0.073

1.448

0.176

Constant

−0.543

0.073

0.151

0.026

Log likelihood (df)

−13,097.95 (30)

−223,593.91 (30)

N

12,860

217,054

  1. Source: 2000 U.S. Census and 2001 Spanish Census (IPUMS-I)
  2. Notes:
  3. 1. Statistically significant results at the 0.05 and 0.10 level are highlighted in bold and italicized respectively
  4. 2. A 1 % random sample of natives in Spain and the United States is extracted in order to avoid the skewing of the estimation due to a much larger size of the native population compared to the immigrant population. The random sample is drawn on the basis of province/state sample size in the original sample

1.3 Appendix 8.C: Multinomial Logistic Regression Estimates of Living Arrangements in Spain and the United States (Baseline: Living with Parents), Natives and Immigrants Combined

 

Spain

United States

Living alone

Living with partner/spouse

Living in extended family

Living alone

Living with partner/spouse

Living in extended family

 

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

β

s.e.

Men

−0.128

0.088

−0.896

0.053

−0.355

0.051

−0.064

0.023

−0.773

0.014

−0.325

0.013

Age (ref: 18–23)

Age: 24–29

1.100

0.127

2.059

0.094

0.270

0.061

1.650

0.030

2.309

0.018

1.042

0.016

Age: 30–35

2.137

0.132

3.732

0.097

0.931

0.072

2.705

0.035

3.833

0.024

1.869

0.023

Education (ref: lower than secondary-level)

Secondary-level education

−0.136

0.097

−0.484

0.057

−0.453

0.055

0.393

0.043

−0.383

0.019

−0.483

0.017

Tertiary-level education

−0.173

0.137

−1.148

0.090

−0.951

0.100

1.164

0.048

−0.452

0.027

−0.947

0.026

Employment status (ref: unemployed/inactive)

In employment

0.640

0.128

0.032

0.065

−0.010

0.066

0.488

0.027

0.236

0.015

0.212

0.014

In school

0.019

0.155

−1.031

0.090

−0.434

0.076

2.982

0.186

3.249

0.169

1.556

0.177

Age at migration & country of birth (Ref: native)

Age at migration: 1–6

Africa

1.164

1.171

2.178

0.690

2.859

0.634

−0.110

0.149

−0.406

0.116

0.131

0.114

South America

0.257

0.213

−0.071

0.140

0.861

0.113

−0.240

0.058

−0.435

0.041

0.395

0.039

West Europe

−0.035

0.114

0.180

0.065

−0.101

0.075

0.095

0.051

−0.059

0.039

−0.150

0.043

East Europe & Russia

0.503

1.081

0.669

0.627

2.168

0.447

−0.662

0.121

−0.725

0.084

−0.416

0.087

South Europe

−0.225

1.043

1.738

0.356

2.062

0.324

−0.516

0.096

−0.491

0.069

−0.382

0.076

East & Southeast Asia

0.476

1.054

−0.019

0.820

1.555

0.406

−0.552

0.045

−0.859

0.033

0.184

0.032

Middle East & North Africa

0.697

0.387

0.594

0.249

1.645

0.211

−0.637

0.118

−0.646

0.083

−0.304

0.087

Caribbean & Central America

−1.048

1.025

0.025

0.375

0.889

0.277

−0.711

0.054

−0.049

0.030

0.977

0.029

Age at migration: 7–12

Africa

−14.068

1,386.104

0.562

0.566

2.438

0.402

−0.303

0.147

−0.717

0.110

0.418

0.097

South America

0.492

0.223

0.192

0.152

1.162

0.107

−0.380

0.060

−0.466

0.040

0.533

0.037

West Europe

0.117

0.145

0.004

0.088

−0.094

0.096

0.121

0.076

−0.095

0.060

−0.108

0.065

East Europe & Russia

−14.222

1,021.306

0.151

0.489

1.337

0.277

−0.763

0.102

−0.842

0.067

−0.347

0.062

South Europe

1.994

0.637

1.656

0.503

1.879

0.435

−0.891

0.154

−0.603

0.098

−0.460

0.107

East & Southeast Asia

0.335

1.048

0.755

0.557

2.128

0.346

−1.034

0.049

−1.074

0.033

0.418

0.031

Middle East & North Africa

1.075

0.342

0.597

0.246

2.059

0.161

−0.590

0.126

−0.737

0.089

−0.057

0.087

Caribbean & Central America

0.479

0.488

0.507

0.307

1.052

0.237

−0.698

0.052

0.109

0.028

1.261

0.027

Age at migration: 13–16

Africa

2.039

0.876

1.924

0.624

3.766

0.524

0.102

0.130

−0.427

0.101

0.743

0.086

South America

0.761

0.253

0.494

0.171

1.740

0.119

−0.167

0.064

−0.198

0.043

0.878

0.040

West Europe

1.109

0.180

0.399

0.140

0.419

0.138

−0.025

0.099

−0.065

0.075

−0.018

0.080

East Europe & Russia

0.067

1.035

1.505

0.399

2.023

0.294

−0.630

0.098

−0.625

0.063

−0.137

0.058

South Europe

2.339

0.593

2.316

0.473

2.659

0.447

−0.500

0.209

−0.293

0.139

−0.043

0.145

East & Southeast Asia

1.129

1.102

1.164

0.699

3.309

0.479

−0.911

0.054

−0.968

0.036

0.569

0.033

Middle East & North Africa

2.021

0.247

1.105

0.208

2.349

0.152

−0.190

0.140

−0.228

0.101

0.474

0.095

Caribbean & Central America

0.088

0.737

1.142

0.307

1.795

0.228

–0.291

0.052

0.756

0.029

1.993

0.028

Constant

−3.572

0.167

−1.883

0.103

−0.745

0.076

−2.826

0.054

−0.351

0.028

−0.137

0.027

Log likelihood (df)

−12,711.58 (102)

−218,175.40 (102)

N

12,860

217,054

  1. Source: 2000 U.S. Census and 2001 Spanish Census (IPUMS-I)
  2. Notes:
  3. 1. Statistically significant results at the 0.05 and 0.10 level are highlighted in bold and italicized respectively
  4. 2. A 1 % random sample of natives in Spain and the United States is extracted in order to avoid the skewing of the estimation due to a much larger size of the native population compared to the immigrant population. The random sample is drawn on the basis of province/state sample size in the original sample

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Arpino, B., Muttarak, R., Vitali, A. (2015). Comparing Living Arrangements of Immigrant Young Adults in Spain and the United States. In: Aybek, C., Huinink, J., Muttarak, R. (eds) Spatial Mobility, Migration, and Living Arrangements. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10021-0_8

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