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Women’s Substance Abuse and Its Impacts on Children’s Early Development and Deviant Behaviors

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Abstract

According to recent reports from the United Nations, the population of illicit drug users continues to grow globally, particularly in rapidly urbanizing, developing countries. As women’s social status increases, so does their involvement in illicit drug use. This article examines from an international perspective the root causes of women’s substance abuse, focusing on its socio-legal consequences and impacts on children’s early development. Taking a global view, the article outlines what we know about women who become addicted to illicit drugs and explores the role of women’s substance abuse in the development of deviant behavior among young children.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cannabis (2.7–4.9 %), amphetamine-type stimulants (2.1 %), opioids (0.7 %) and cocaine (0.45) were the most common illicit drugs abused worldwide.

  2. 2.

    According to data collected from 22 European Union (EU) member states and Switzerland (where there are 4647 drug treatment centers combined), the gender ratio (male to female) significantly varied among countries (also by drugs): 5.3 (South Europe), 4.3 (East Europe), 3.5 (West Europe), 2.6 (North Europe) (Montanari et al. 2011).

  3. 3.

    According to a 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA 2014), the primary source of statistical information on substance abuse in the United States, the rate of illicit drug use for persons aged 12 or older was 9.4 % with only a slightly increase (<2 %) as compared to data collected 10 years ago. Men are more likely to use illicit drugs than women across countries; the male to female gender ratio was 11.5 vs. 7.3 %.

  4. 4.

    This survey included both developed countries and developing countries: Australia, United States of America, Spain, Urban Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

  5. 5.

    See Internal Monetary Fund 2011 for a full list of newly industrialized countries.

  6. 6.

    While both sex workers and people who injected drugs were identified as key populations by the World Health Organization (WHO), only 10 % of the people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Africa, followed by slightly better numbers in Eastern Europe (22 %) and East and Southeast Asia (about 32 %) (WHO 2014).

  7. 7.

    While the total number of newly infected children with HIV in low-and middle income countries declined by 40 %, one third of pregnant women (about one million) in these countries have not received ART treatment, which was provided to pregnant women infected with HIV (WHO 2014).

  8. 8.

    Standard antiretroviral therapy (ART) consists of the combination of at least three antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to suppress the HIV virus and stop the progression of HIV disease.

  9. 9.

    The number was much higher than the illiterate rate for the general population (38 %) (UNODC 2008).

  10. 10.

    In the study, women’s occupations were limited to the following categories: house wife (36 %), house maid (21 %), sex worker (13 %)

  11. 11.

    Mediating and moderating factors vary across time, cultures, ethnicities, social roles, class, age, sexual orientation and identity (Wiechelt 2008, p. 974).

  12. 12.

    Spain, Italy, Austria and Sweden were less likely to convict female offenders, but other countries, such as Germany, Belgium and the United Kingdom were not (EMCDDA 2006).

  13. 13.

    These crimes included drug use, drug pushing, sex work and other petty crimes (UNODC 2010).

  14. 14.

    These other diseases include N. Gonorrhea, syphilis, C. trachomatis, and HSV-2 (Wang et al. 2011).

  15. 15.

    In this study 71 % of the children showed neonatal abstinence syndrome relating to their mothers’ heroin or methadone abuse (Vucinovic et al. 2008).

  16. 16.

    Drug testing for pregnant women usually incorporates one of these methods: urine toxicology screening, hair testing, or meconium testing.

  17. 17.

    The prevalence rate was 14.6 % for ages 15–17, 8.6 % ages 18–25, and 3.2 % for ages 26–44 (SAMHSA 2014).

  18. 18.

    Not all states reported differentiated caregivers’ risk factors on alcohol and drug abuse. Therefore, in some states alcohol or drug abuse might have been counted twice.

  19. 19.

    If a child showed any of the following signs, he or she would be considered as have a disability: intellectual disability, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems (Administration for Children and Families 2010, p. 21).

  20. 20.

    This finding was confirmed by the recent national report on child maltreatment: Infants aged 2 years old or younger were more vulnerable to abuse and neglect (but not to sexual abuse) (Administration for Children and Families 2012).

  21. 21.

    Such problems included fearfulness, hyperactivity, acting out, and psychosomatic complaints.

  22. 22.

    For boys, impacts were on hyperactivity, acting out, psychosomatic complaints and social problems, and girls only acting out.

  23. 23.

    Among youths aged 12–17, about 17.0 % of them had gotten into violence and 34.6 % of them had engaged in property crime/petty thefts that were related to substance abuse (SAMHSA 2014).

  24. 24.

    These countries only partially filled their treatment capacity and had more available facilities or units for new clients: Italy (16.2 %), Belgium (25.9 %), Sweden (42.9 %), Turkey (50 %), and Germany (61.9 %).

  25. 25.

    This number was based on criteria specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) (SAMHSA 2014).

  26. 26.

    These risk factors include maternal depression, domestic violence, nondomestic violence, family size, homelessness, incarceration, absence of boyfriend or husband, life events, psychological status, and drug severity. Level of risk was recorded into 4 categories ranging from 2 or less to 5 or more.

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  1. California State University, Stanislaus, CA, USA

    Huan Gao

  2. University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China

    Jianhong Liu

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Gao, H., Liu, J. (2016). Women’s Substance Abuse and Its Impacts on Children’s Early Development and Deviant Behaviors. In: Kury, H., Redo, S., Shea, E. (eds) Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_9

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_9

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  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-08398-8

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