Abstract
The United Nations Charter and other international instruments promote justice and international law as cornerstones of peace and security, nationally and internationally. This chapter looks into the avenues and precepts of inculcating an appreciation for international law and international principles (for example those on crime prevention and criminal justice or human rights) through education at the university level and, especially, at the pre-university level. It discusses ways in which relevant learning takes place both in the regular curriculum and in such extra-curricular activities as Model United Nations Conferences, which involve both high school and university students. Various efforts by the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies to stimulate such education are noted, such as “United Nations Academic Impact Initiative”. So too is the dearth both of curricular requirements and of teaching materials suitable for teaching the subject at the pre-university level. Note is taken of a handful of excellent teaching aids that are available.
The author appreciates the assistance of Marvin Astrada, Daniel Baum, Donald Buckingham, Hays Butler, Valerie Epps, John King Gamble, Libby Giles, Maryella Hannum, Michael Herdman, Ved Nanda, Wes Rist and Tony Smith.
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Notes
- 1.
Some of the best existing teaching materials are in the area of human rights. See below at notes 70–84.
- 2.
Notably the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), 1577 UNTS 3.
- 3.
See the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), 1249 UNTS 13.
- 4.
See the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), 660 UNTS 195.
- 5.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, above note.
- 6.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), 2525 UNTS 3.
- 7.
See, e.g., on Peace Education in the New Zealand School Curriculum, https://podcasts.otago.ac.nz/nzpeace-ed/peace-education-directory/nz-curriculum/. Departments and programmes with such titles as “Peace and Conflict Studies” and “Global Citizenship” have proliferated in universities world-wide in recent years.
- 8.
See, e.g., Sobhi Tawil, Education for ‘Global Citizenship’: A Framework for Discussion, UNESCO Education Research and Foresight Working Papers, No. 7 (August 2013), available at http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/PaperN7EducforGlobalCitizenship.pdf. UNESCO fosters numerous initiatives in schools worldwide through its Associated Schools Project Network (ASPnet), a global network of over 9000 education institutions in 180 countries. See http://www.state.gov/p/io/unesco/c18952.htm. See also Center for International Education and Research (CIER) University of Birmingham, Global Citizenship: The Needs of teachers and Learners, Key Findings, available at http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social-sciences/education/cier/global-citizenship-report.pdf; Oxfam, Education for Global Citizenship, A Guide for Schools, available at http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/Files/Education/Global%20Citizenship/education_for_global_citizenship_a_guide_for_schools.ashx.
- 9.
Note UNESCO’s work for the United Nations Decade for Education in Sustainable Development (2005–2014), available at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/about-us/.
- 10.
See Compendium of United Nations Standards and Norms in Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (2006 ed.), available at http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/justice-and-prison-reform/compendium.html. Looking through the Table of Contents of the Compendium, I noted the following instruments as being particularly relevant in the present context, although there are no doubt others: Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (the Beijing Rules), United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines), United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty, Guidelines on Action for Children in the Criminal Justice System, Basic Principles on the Use of Restorative Justice Programmes in Criminal Matters, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, Model Strategies and Practical Measures on the Elimination of Violence against Women in the Field of Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, and Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary. On the standards and norms in general, see Ram (2012); Redo (2012); Clark (1994). For some excellent teaching material on international criminal justice in general, see Natarajan (2011). For some wider thoughts on international criminal law, see Podgor and Clark (2013).
- 11.
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court has numerous provisions on the protection of victims, especially women and children, and also acknowledges the difficult problem of child soldiers by asserting that the Court has no jurisdiction over any person who was under the age of 18 at the time of the alleged commission of a crime.
- 12.
My former student, Marvin Astrada, who has had experience teaching in Political Science and International Affairs departments, comments on a draft of this chapter in the present context:
To effectively counter the critique that idealism, which undergirds international law, has little or no effect independent of State power (political realism) on international affairs, it would be wise to inculcate from the inception of pedagogical training … a comprehensive understanding of the limits as well as the potential for international law to be effective – to maximize its capacity to impact in a meaningful way international affairs.
- 13.
There have been several efforts to present the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in ways that younger children can appreciate. See e.g., Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Plain Language Version, available at http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/humanrights/resources/plain.asp. Amnesty International has produced a creative video using various art forms to explain each article of the Declaration, available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=epVZrYbDVis. Teaching the Universal Declaration is facilitated by its translation into 370 languages; it is the most translated document in the world according to the Guinness Book of Records. See http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/SearchByLang.aspx. On disseminating the United Nations crime prevention and criminal justice instruments, especially in universities and specialized training institutes, see Aromaa and Redo (2008).
- 14.
Spijkers (2011).
- 15.
Id. at p. 4. This is not to deny that there are occasions where the values of major players in the organization are dominant. See Bemis (2000).
- 16.
Spijkers (2011) p. 4.
- 17.
Quoted id. pp. 4–5 (interpolation in original).
- 18.
See the website of the initiative, available at http://academicimpact.org/engpage.php.
- 19.
Rutgers offers a Summer United Nations Study Program consistent with the Initiative. See https://studyabroad.rutgers.edu/index.cfm?FuseAction=Programs.ViewProgram&Program_ID=10391 on the 2014 offering.
- 20.
Kent (1858). (First edition published in 1826).
- 21.
Id. at pp. xi–xii. In modern terms, and no doubt when he was writing, the group to which Kent refers who “assume places of public trust” would include the media. Public commentators about international law on a par with those such as Anthony Lewis or Linda Greenhouse, who have made United States constitutional law accessible to many, are lacking in the international area. The American Society of International Law’s ASIL Insights series, available at http://www.asil.org/insights/all, is accessible to the educated public.
- 22.
The reference to “undergraduate” here may be confusing to some. It is apparently referring to a first degree in law. Note that in the United States and Canada, law is normally a three-year “graduate” degree (culminating in a Juris Doctor degree) in that law students have already completed a 4-year bachelor’s degree before coming to law school. In Canada and the United States, study of international law also takes place in “truly undergraduate” programmes in Departments of Political Science or International Relations. Some students in postgraduate law programmes in the US and Canada (Masters in Law and Doctorates in Juridical Science typically) study international law at an advanced level at law schools across the spectrum of prestige. My impression is that it is more common for foreign students than the local ones to take such courses. In most other parts of the world, law is an undergraduate degree in the sense that it is attended by students immediately following secondary school. There are, of course, many graduate programmes in law world-wide that build on what is covered in a first law degree. There are some excellent graduate programmes in what might be described broadly as international relations which have advanced law courses aimed primarily at non-law students. See, for example, the courses offered at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy of Tufts University in Massachusetts.
- 23.
International Law Association, The Hague Conference (2010), Committee on the Teaching of International Law, available on the internet via Google.
- 24.
Beginning in the early 1970s, I taught a course on the International Protection of Human Rights and one on the Law of International Organizations (a kind of constitutional and administrative law course on the United Nations and the Specialized Agencies). Later, in the 1980s, I began offering the basic Introduction to International Law course, a course entitled International Criminal Law and Criminal Justice Policy, and one on Foreign Relations and National Security Law. My Law School, which has a broader international curriculum than many American law schools, continues to offer these courses and courses on International Environmental Law, European Law, and Legal Research on International Law. We have occasionally offered one on the Law of the Sea. In the “private” international law area, we have offerings on International Commercial Arbitration, International Business Transactions, International Trade Law and Conflict of Laws. None of the courses in public or private international law are compulsory.
- 25.
Perhaps this situation in part reflects the difficulties international law has in finding a place in a curriculum which seems increasingly to be swallowed up by “skills” courses. Many teachers/practitioners in the human rights field have responded with clinical offerings. My colleague, Beth Stephens, for example, has a very popular offering on Human Rights Advocacy and Litigation. In a very thoughtful essay a few years back Professor Gerry Simpson wrote of a “malaise in the teaching of international law resulting from a fear of being confined to the academic peripheries. This fear arises from a sense that international lawyers are deemed not sufficiently like ‘real’ lawyers by some of our colleagues and not savvy enough about global realities according to some international relations scholars.” Simpson (1999) (abstract). As one who has made a living for half a century as an academic, scholar, occasional government legal representative, member of a UN Committee and NGO agitator, I have never felt especially defensive about the “reality” of international law.
- 26.
Buckingham (1996). The 1995 U.N. Congress was part of the programme of the United Nations Decade of International Law. Authorized by GA/Res/44/23, the Decade had as one of its main purposes, to “encourage the teaching, study, dissemination and wider appreciation of international law.” An earlier initiative was the United Nations Programme of Assistance in the Training, Study, Dissemination and Wider Appreciation of International Law, established in 1965 by G. A. Res. 2099 (XX). An important (and continuing) product of that initiative is the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, available at http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html. The Library contains some presentations that would work at the secondary school level as well as in universities.
- 27.
- 28.
Buckingham, above at p. 367. One exception he notes was McNemar (1983) (emphasizing importance to creating an informed public of study of international law in colleges and high schools as well as law schools).
- 29.
Buckingham at p. 359, relying on Hart (1961).
- 30.
Id.
- 31.
Id. at p. 360.
- 32.
Id. at p. 361 quoting Gamble (1993) at pp. 122–123. Professor Gamble of Penn State University is Chair of the International Law Association’s Interest Group on Teaching and has taught International Law to Political Science students throughout a long career. He reports in an e-mail dated 26 May 2014 observing something of a resurgence in teaching International Law in the United States, including at some “top-notch schools”. He attributes some of the neglect in American Political Science departments to the prevalence of empirical teaching and scholarship. The classic study of the teaching of international law is that by Judge Lachs, the late Polish member of the International Court of Justice: Lachs (1982). Devoted in large part to musings about great teacher/practitioners of international law through history, the book contains some interesting material about the state of teaching International Law in universities in Europe and North America (a somewhat disappointing picture it would seem). See especially at pp. 137–150. See also Cheng (1982), which contains useful studies of the teaching on international law in the United Kingdom, France and Austria (and implies that support for such programs in not overwhelming).
- 33.
Buckingham at p. 362.
- 34.
Id.
- 35.
Id. at p. 363.
- 36.
Id.
- 37.
Id at pp. 363–364. The second argument touches more generally on the necessity to teach international law at all levels of study, including the university level. Marvin Astrada comments:
I would ground the case for international law – as well as orientation for students of international law – in globalization (as historical processes, as a product and producer of norms and values, as an expression of power, as a challenge to State power, as a complex cultural, social, political, economic harbinger of transformation in the modus operandi of international affairs).
See generally Astrada and Martin (2013) pp. 27–33.
- 38.
I have not been able to find anything systematic about the teaching of international law at high schools throughout the world. Professor Kai Ambos of the University of Gottingen was kind enough to report to me that:
[In Germany] there are no books for the High School, pre-University level. Usually high school students get some basic information about international law from their political science courses and books. Apart from that there is a Federal Agency for Civic Education, the Bundeszentral für politische Bildung, which publishes kind of journals on specific topics, including legal topics (for example recently one on the ICC), see www.bpb.de/die-bpb/138852/the-federal-agency-for-civic-education.
A computer search of United States and other high schools reveals a few random (often private) schools around the globe with international law offerings, but I located nothing systematic at a national, provincial or state level aside from Ontario.
- 39.
Buckingham at pp. 364–367.
- 40.
Ontario Curriculum (1987), Unit 5. Law and the World Community, reproduced in Buckingham at p. 370. The 2005 version of the Curriculum perhaps emphasizes more the connections between Canadian and International Law. See the general description in Ontario Curriculum, at p. 239, Canadian and International Law:
This course examines elements of Canadian and international law in social, political, and global contexts. Students will study the historical and philosophical sources of law and the principles and practices of international law and will learn to relate them to issues in Canadian society and the wider world. Students will use critical-thinking and communication skills to analyse legal issues, conduct independent research, and present the results of their inquiries in a variety of ways.
Available at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/canworld1112curr.pdf. The details, at 244–246, are not all that different from the 1987 version. See also the item “Canada in the World Community”, id. at p. 153 discussing Canada’s involvement in UN Peacekeeping, the WHO, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Making the domestic law connections strikes a chord with some of my own experience in teaching United States law students. Perhaps my most successful course, Foreign Relations and National Security Law, deals primarily with the inter-relationship between the United States Constitution and International Law. Students quickly appreciate that the Founding Fathers believed in the law of nations (as they called it—see reference to Kent above nn 20–21) and sought to anchor their constitution in its framework. International Law thus has an immediate appeal, even if it is not a subject that is tested directly on the bar examination.
- 41.
Id. (Ontario Curriculum, 1987).
- 42.
Research by students or scholars which involves talking to the people involved and getting the latter’s stories, in addition to consulting the printed word (or these days the internet), has always appealed to me as a way to bring a subject to life.
- 43.
Pasternack (1999–2000).
- 44.
Id. at pp. 51–52.
- 45.
Id. at p. 52.
- 46.
G.A. Res. 45/40 (Annex) (1990) and later resolutions dealing with the United Nations Decade of International Law, discussed above. See also the voluminous other UN and Organization of American States materials discussed by Pasternack at 55–59, including Article 26(2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which proclaims that education “shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.”
- 47.
The relevant provisions all appear to be derivative from Article 26(2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, above note 46.
- 48.
UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960), 429 UNTS 93.
- 49.
Adopted by the General Conference at the eighteenth session of UNESCO, 19 November 1974, available at http://www.unesco.org/education/nfsunesco/pdf/Peace_e.pdf.
- 50.
Id. operative paragraph 4.
- 51.
Buckingham (1996) p. 363 n. 14. He added, however, quite fairly:
For a view which implicitly denies this position, see the Centre for Human Rights, Teaching Human Rights: Practical Activities for Primary and Secondary Schools (United Nations, New York, 1989).
There was a new edition of this handy 84-page work in 2004. See discussion below at notes 71–81.
- 52.
Todres and Higinbotham (2013). The authors find some striking connections between Dr Seuss’s work and the rights enumerated in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. For my own speculations on the law relating to nuclear weapons and Dr Seuss’s The Butter Battle Book, see Clark (2013/2014). The latter contribution is part of a major symposium in Volume 58, Number 3 of the Review devoted to the connections between Dr Seuss’s work and the law which could be of considerable interest to educators.
- 53.
Todres and Higinbotham (2013), p. 40.
- 54.
Id. quoting Ward (1995).
- 55.
Id. with several references to relevant scholarly works. See also their quotation at pp. 44–45 of the work of Howe and Covell:
The evidence shows overwhelmingly that children who learn about and experience their rights are children who demonstrate the fundamentals of good citizenship. They gain knowledge not only of their basic rights but also their corresponding social responsibilities. They develop the attitudes and values that are necessary for the promotion and protection of the rights of others, and they acquire the behavioral skills necessary for effective participation in a democratic society.
Howe and Covell (2007) at p. 7.
- 56.
Pasternack (1999–2000) at pp. 61–64.
- 57.
Buergenthal and Torney (1976).
- 58.
Remy et al. (1975), pp. 39–40.
- 59.
Id. as quoted in Pasternack at p. 63 (includes Pasternack’s interpolated addition of reference to internet).
- 60.
Buergenthal and Torney at pp. 122–123, quoted in Pasternack at pp. 63–64.
- 61.
Above at notes 26–42.
- 62.
Buckingham et al. (1997).
- 63.
Dickenson et al. (1996).
- 64.
Baum (1989).
- 65.
1995 edition with Roland Case. Mr. Baum has written widely for high schools and community colleges on a number of law-related topics.
- 66.
Mr. Baum’s most recent work, Baum (2014), while it discusses Canadian domestic law, is a template for addressing complex legal subjects in a manner which is intelligible but not condescending to the target audience. Anyone contemplating strategies to discuss the UN standards and norms on criminal justice with high school students will find Youth and the Law a suggestive model. There are probably lessons to be drawn also from another “domestic law” project, the Marshall-Brennan Constitutional Literacy Project that operates across the United States. Law students, under faculty supervision, teach constitutional law doctrine to high school students, especially in inner cities. See Friedman et al. (2013) (there are several other interesting articles on the topic in the same issue of the Review). See also the work of Street Law, Inc., in which lawyers, law students and teachers work together to teach high school students about law, democracy and human rights, description available at http://www.streetlaw.org/en/home.
- 67.
Caroline Starbird, Jenny Pettit and Laurel Singleton, Teaching International Law (2004) (part of a series on Concepts in International Relations), available at http://www.worldaffairschallenge.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Teaching-International-Law.pdf. A paperback edition is advertised through a print-on-demand service. An imaginative document that could be useful in high schools, as well as universities and in educating the general public is the American Society of International Law’s International Law: 100 Ways It Shapes Our Lives, available at http://www.asil.org/education/100-ways.
- 68.
The Center is apparently in the process of re-inventing itself as a separate non-for-profit. See http://www.volunteermatch.org/search/org211098.jsp. I suspect that many initiatives such as this ultimately founder on a lack of continuing financial resources.
- 69.
ABC (2004) (revised edition published in 2004 by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights). The publication was UNHCHR’s major contribution to the U.N. Decade for Human Rights Education (1995–2004). The Decade was mandated by G.A. Res. 50/177 of 22 December 1995. In the Plan of Action for the Decade, set out in UN Doc. A/51/506/Add. 1 of 12 December 1996 at 6, the UNHCHR noted the objective of the Decade thus:
Human rights education under the Decade shall seek both to impart skills and knowledge to learners and to affect positively their attitudes and behaviour, consistent with all other principles set forth in the present Plan of Action and in the international human rights instruments upon which it is based.
The Decade was followed by the World Programme for Human Rights Education, proclaimed by G.A. Res. 59/113 of 10 December 2004. A large number of United Nations programmes and agencies have been cooperating in the World Programme under the aegis of the United Nations Inter Agency Coordinating Committee on Human Rights Education in the School System (UNISACC). The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights is the lead agency in this endeavour. See material at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/Training/WPHRE/FirstPhase/Pages/UNInterAgency.aspx. The Programme has been operating in 5-year phases. The first phase, 2005–2009, focused on human rights education in primary and secondary schools; the current (second) phase, 2010–2014 deals with human rights education for higher education and on human rights training programmes for teachers and educators, civil servants, law enforcement officials and military personnel. As a contribution to the first phase, a consortium led by the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE/ODIHR), and including the Council of Europe (CoE), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) produced a very useful volume, Human Rights Education in the School Systems of Europe, Central Asia and North America: A Compendium of Good Practice (2009). The Foreword to this publication containing 101 examples of good practices describes it as “a resource for practitioners and policymakers as well as a platform for exchange among institutions and individuals.” More recently, the OHCHR and UNESCO have produced a document entitled Human Rights Education in Primary and Secondary School Systems: A Self-Assessment Guide for Governments (2012). It has some thoughtful material on practices and on the literature dealing with assessment of the effectiveness of human rights programmes in schools.
- 70.
Above at n 51.
- 71.
Plan of Action, above note 70 at p. 9.
- 72.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, preambular paragraph 7. Note also UNICEF’s Rights Respecting Schools initiative which encourages putting the Convention on the Rights of the Child at the centre of a school’s planning, policies, practice and ethos. See http://www.unicef.org.uk/Get-Involved/Your-organisation/Schools/rights-respecting-school-award/. Although the CRC has not been translated into as many languages as the UDHR, UNESCO has it in 58 languages, many of them child-friendly versions. See http://www.unicef.org/magic/briefing/uncorc.html.
- 73.
ABC at p. 18.
- 74.
In my daughter’s high school in New Jersey, a history course on the Holocaust introduced her to some basic notions of human rights and international law. Her teacher was also engaged with the Model United Nations Program, below. No doubt international legal material could be inserted into history courses dealing with the American Civil War (and the Lieber Code on the laws of armed conflict) and on comparable European experience leading to the adoption of the first Geneva Convention in 1864. And see ASIL material below n 83. Slavery and the slave trade is another obvious area where historical analysis can be combined with some appreciation of the contribution that treaty law (both bilateral and multilateral) made to the abolition of that odious trade. UNESCO has some creative materials on the trade in its Transatlantic Slave Trade project, available at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/networks/global-networks/aspnet/flagship-projects/transatlantic-slave-trade/. In respect of “after-school activities”, consider for example the presence of Amnesty International or other human rights groups in some high schools. In law schools there is recurrent debate on whether international law should be addressed in bespoke courses or whether it should be “mainstreamed” with modules in other courses. The “best practice” is surely to do both.
- 75.
ABC (2004) at p. 25.
- 76.
English teachers may find in Shakespeare’s Henry V a useful opportunity to introduce students to the law of armed conflict. See Meron (1993).
- 77.
As an “activist” on such issues as criminal justice, nuclear weapons and the International Criminal Court, I have occasionally been interviewed by local high school students in New Jersey in what seemed each time to be a very creative assignment by an engaged teacher which combines interviewing and writing skills along with substantive learning.
- 78.
ABC (2004) at p. 6.
- 79.
Id.
- 80.
As I suggested at the beginning of this chapter, Peace Studies is also an area of the curriculum where issues of international law are inevitably introduced. For a collection of very thought-provoking material aimed at early childhood education and at primary and secondary programmes in the New Zealand School Curriculum, see the website entitled “education4peace” at the University of Otago, a production of the New Zealand National Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, available at https://podcasts.otago.ac.nz/nzpeace-ed/peace-education-directory/. On the International Baccalaureate and its human rights component, see the chapter in this volume by Elizabeth Stanners, School education and social behavior: teaching aspects of human rights and values. Genocide is another area; the American University, Washington College of Law, has some excellent materials in its Genocide Teaching Project which is aimed at high schools. See http://www.wcl.american.edu/humright/center/rwanda/lesson.cfm.
- 81.
- 82.
The modules are entitled: The United States Constitution and International Law; The Rules of War: From the Civil War-Era Lieber Code to the Geneva Conventions; The Nuremberg Tribunal: Justice and Accountability; and Lessons Learned: Civil Rights and Human Rights in the United States and the World. The American Bar Association has a program for Civics and Law Academies which can be offered in various formats—in-class or as curricular add-ons. The current materials all address American legal issues, see http://www.americanbar.org/groups/civics/civics_and_law_academy.html, but the format seems to be eminently adaptable to international legal issues.
- 83.
I am grateful to D. Wes Rist, Director of Education and Research at the ASIL for this information and for a peek at an advanced draft of the materials which are very professionally done.
- 84.
The following is another example of an extracurricular experience adaptable to international law. The New Zealand Centre for Global Studies (http://nzcgs.org.nz/news-and-events/) hosted a project titled Global Citizenship in Schools, involving senior high-school students selected by application. In collaboration with a leading secondary school, Auckland Girls Grammar, the Centre convened a conference in August 2012 (Auckland) and has held seminars on the subject in March 2014 (Waiheke). Report by the students on file with the author. On global citizenship studies, see also references in n 8 above. Libby Giles, the Auckland Girls Grammar teacher directly involved with the Waiheke event, emphasized in an e-mail the need for teacher training to cope with the cross-curricular skills involved in global citizenship education.
- 85.
Model UN, FAQ, available at http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/modelun/faq.html.
- 86.
National Model UN, available at http://www.nmun.org/.
- 87.
United Nations Association of the United States of America, Model UN: How to Participate, available at http://www.unausa.org/global-classrooms-model-un/how-to-participate.
- 88.
My own university hosts a well-attended Model United Nations for high schools. See http://modelun.com/rumun/. In addition, the Rutgers University Model UN Travel team reports competing in inter-university competitions in The Hague, Montreal and Puebla, Mexico as well as throughout the United States, available at http://www.ruair.org/model-un-team.html. For an extensive list of high school events, see Bestdelegate, Model United Nations Conference Database, available at http://bestdelegate.com/model-un-conferences-database/.
- 89.
See Ivy League Model United Nations Conference, available at http://www.ilmunc.com/.
- 90.
E.g., National Model UN Delegate Preparation Guide (2013), available at http://www.nmun.org/ny_archives/ny13_downloads/Delegate_Prep_Guide2013.pdf. Chen (2009), available at http://www.scribd.com/doc/9717149/Model-United-Nations-Handbook.
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Clark, R.S. (2016). The Role of Justice and Fairness as Global Values: Promoting Public International Law at the (Pre-)University Level. In: Kury, H., Redo, S., Shea, E. (eds) Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_12
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