Abstract
There is a growing momentum for international and domestic legal reforms to confront violence against women and children, as indicated by the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and recent initiatives by the United Nations and others. This chapter examines the impact and potential of international human rights law as a component of efforts to prevent and redress violence against women and children.
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Notes
- 1.
See United Nations General Assembly (2011), Annex para. 2 (describing violence against women). This chapter provides an overview of the topic and is not intended to be comprehensive.
- 2.
This chapter generally uses the terms “violence against women” and “gender violence” interchangeably, reflecting the disproportionate impact of the types of violence discussed on women and girls, as well as the recognition that men, particularly gay and transgender men, may be subjected to these forms of violence. It uses the terms “victim” and “survivor” interchangeably, recognizing that some object that the term “victim” obscures an individual’s sense of agency, while others object to the term “survivor” on the ground that not all who are subjected to violence survive.
- 3.
United Nations General Assembly (1993), A/RES/48/104, Art. 2; United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2010), pp. 23–24; World Health Organization (2013), pp. 5–6. See generally United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2011) (discussing evolving understandings of “harmful practices”).
- 4.
See, e.g., United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2013), pp. 49–56 (indicating that females are the vast majority of victims of homicides committed by intimate partners or other family members); World Health Organization (2013), pp. 16–20, 31 (detailing prevalence of intimate partner and non-partner violence experienced by women globally); United Nations Department of Public Information (2011) (summarizing global statistics). See also, e.g., Black et al. (2011), pp. 2–3 (finding that in the United States, nearly one in four women and one in seven men have experienced severe physical violence by a current or former partner and that one in five women and one in 71 men have been raped at some point in their lives).
- 5.
See, e.g., National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (2013), pp. 13–14.
- 6.
For further discussion of the CRC, see Sect. 3.2.1 below.
- 7.
United Nations General Assembly (1989), Art. 1 (quoted in Pinheiro 2006a, para. 8; Pinheiro 2006b, p. 4). Some sources indicate that the definition of children includes all persons under the age of 18, regardless of the local age of majority. See, e.g., Committee on the Rights of the Child (2007), paras. 36–37; United Nations General Assembly (2003), Art. 3(d).
- 8.
See generally Pinheiro (2006b). See also Hodgkin and Newell (2007), pp. 249–276; NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child (2008), pp. 11–12; Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children (2013), pp. iv–v; Pinheiro (2006a), paras. 28, 38–80. For further discussion of harmful practices, see Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children (2013), pp. 68–70 (discussing harmful practices affecting children); United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2011) (discussing harmful practices affecting women and girls).
- 9.
- 10.
United Nations General Assembly (2011), para. 4, Annex.
- 11.
- 12.
See Sect. 3.2.1 below.
- 13.
- 14.
See, e.g., Due Diligence Project (2014) (proposing framework based on NGO advocates’ recommendations for implementation).
- 15.
- 16.
See United Nations Treaty Collection (2015a).
- 17.
The Optional Protocol authorizes the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider “communications” on behalf of individuals or groups of individuals claiming violations of any rights set forth in CEDAW, and requires the Committee to solicit responses from the pertinent State Party, to inform it of any actions it takes in response, and to include a summary of actions it has taken in its annual reports. See United Nations General Assembly (1999), A/RES/54/4, Annex. If the Committee receives reliable information indicating grave or systemic violations, it may authorize an inquiry by one or more of its members, and will transmit resulting findings, comments and recommendations to the State party for its response. Ibid., Arts. 8, 9.
- 18.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (1989).
- 19.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (1992).
- 20.
- 21.
See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2014c).
- 22.
United Nations General Assembly (1976); Human Rights Committee (2000), para. 8 (protection from gender-based violence during armed conflict), para. 11 (laws prohibiting domestic violence, including rape, forced sterilization and genital mutilation), para. 12 (prohibitions against trafficking), para. 14 (laws or practices condoning confinement of women), para. 16 (restriction of women’s movement), para. 24 (supporting marriage as a free choice by, inter alia, proscribing attitudes that marginalize women victims of rape), para. 31 (“honour crimes” violate Convention).
- 23.
- 24.
Organization of American States (1994) (Convention of Belém do Pará).
- 25.
Organization of American States (1969) (American Convention).
- 26.
Organization of American States (1948) (American Declaration).
- 27.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2003) (African Protocol).
- 28.
Other provisions, for example, addressing education, economic and social rights and health and reproductive rights, complement the provisions addressing gender violence more directly. See, e.g., ibid., Art. 12 (Right to Education and Training), Art. 13 (Economic and Social Welfare Rights), Art. 14 (Health and Reproductive Rights), Art. 16 (Right to Adequate Housing).
- 29.
Council of Europe (2011) (Istanbul Convention).
- 30.
Not ratified by the United States of America. See United Nations Treaty Collection (2015b).
- 31.
United Nations General Assembly (2002a), A/RES/S-27/2, para. 4.
- 32.
Article 19(2) states, “Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support for the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms of prevention and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial involvement.”
- 33.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2014b).
- 34.
- 35.
As of 15 May 2015, the third Optional Protocol had been ratified by 17 Member States. See United Nations Treaty Collection (2015c).
- 36.
Committee on the Rights of the Child (2013), Rule 27.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
See, e.g., Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (1992), para. 15 (describing women and young girls forced into prostitution), para. 20 (referring to traditional practices that are harmful to women and children), para. 21 (noting risks to rural women and girls), para. 23 (describing family violence against “women of all ages”). See also discussion of CEDAW General Recommendation No. 19 in Sect. 3.1.1 above.
- 40.
- 41.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2002).
- 42.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1990).
- 43.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2009), p. 11.
- 44.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2014d).
- 45.
As one example, see Manjoo (2013b).
- 46.
See, e.g., University of Minnesota Human Rights Library (2003) (summarizing and collecting reports).
- 47.
- 48.
See Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children (2014).
- 49.
Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children (OSRSG) (2013).
- 50.
- 51.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (2007b).
- 52.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (2007a).
- 53.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (2005).
- 54.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (2012).
- 55.
European Court of Human Rights (2009b).
- 56.
European Court of Human Rights (2009a).
- 57.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2009).
- 58.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2011).
- 59.
United States Supreme Court (2005).
- 60.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2001).
- 61.
- 62.
See Sect. 5.1 above.
- 63.
Pinheiro (2006b), p. 38 (citations omitted).
- 64.
See Van Bueren (1995), pp. 249–252 (describing cases claiming that corporal punishment in schools violated the European Convention on Human Rights).
- 65.
See, e.g., Weiner (2004) (discussing Article 20 of the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction).
- 66.
The twelfth petitioner was Ripples International, a charitable non-governmental organization in Meru specializing in the protection of children.
- 67.
- 68.
Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (2002), pp. 37–38.
- 69.
United States District Court (2002), p. 234.
- 70.
The four organizations were the Rutgers School of Law—Camden’s Child and Family Advocacy Clinic, the American University Washington College of Law’s International Human Rights Law Clinic, Centro Una Brisa de Esperanza, and La Oficina Jurídica Para La Mujer. The request was filed on behalf of more than one hundred Bolivian non-governmental organizations. Stephens et al. (2012a).
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
- 74.
Columbia Law School Human Rights Clinic and Miami Law Human Rights Clinic (2014) (listing resolutions).
- 75.
See Center for Women’s Global Leadership (2013) (detailing campaign activities and materials, which were available to participants in over 60 languages).
- 76.
- 77.
- 78.
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
See Butchart et al. (2004), p. 39 (suggesting that “interventions that strengthen the efficiency and improve the fairness of the criminal justice system” would help prevent violence); European Court of Human Rights (1985) (finding that a gap in the law that made it impossible to institute criminal proceedings against the alleged rapist of a 16-year-old girl with an intellectual disability violated the victim’s rights under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights).
- 83.
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
See Goldscheid (2007), pp. 768–770 (describing limitations of civil lawsuits against perpetrators of sexual and domestic violence). In particular, civil proceedings in family law matters are often insufficiently responsive to intimate partner violence and child abuse. See Sect. 6 above (describing family court reports); United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2010), p. 54; United Nations General Assembly (2011), A/RES/65/228, Annex para. 14(d).
- 88.
- 89.
- 90.
See Goldfarb (2008), pp. 1499–1504. By virtue of their age, children do not enjoy complete autonomy. Nevertheless, the CRC provides that in judicial and administrative proceedings, children’s views should be given due weight in accordance with their age and maturity (Art. 12). See Committee on the Rights of the Child (2009).
- 91.
- 92.
- 93.
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Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful comments provided by Martha Davis, Cynthia Soohoo, Beth Stephens, and Merle Weiner, and the research assistance provided by Maura Burk, Hope Deutsch, Rebecca Mamone, and Meghan McLoughlin.
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Goldfarb, S., Goldscheid, J. (2016). International Human Rights Law on Violence Against Women and Children and Its Impact on Domestic Law and Action. In: Kury, H., Redo, S., Shea, E. (eds) Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08398-8_1
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