Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Use-Wear and Residue Analysis in Archaeology pp 199–219Cite as

About Small Things and Bigger Pictures: An Introduction to the Morphological Identification of Micro-residues on Stone Tools

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique ((MATT))

Abstract

Micro-residue analysis, together with other use-trace approaches, played an important part in the paradigm shift that Neanderthals were hunters, and more recently that bow-and-arrow technology may have been employed much earlier than previously thought. Residue studies may thus not only add to our knowledge of a specific sample or site, but can also greatly contribute to larger and overarching anthropological debates. In this chapter we provide an introduction to the multi-stranded approach for micro-residue analysis of stone tools. This method strongly relies on the context of in situ micro-residues and can be used to distinguish use-related remains that are then correlated to processed or contact materials. The reoccurring patterns of residue suites on tools of the same morphology allow us to identify portions of the tools used in processing other materials, and mostly when combined with other traces, the action modes. The chapter includes information on sample selection and on the analysis of results through quantification. The basis of our approach to micro-residue analysis, however, is the morphological identification of remains through microscopy. Therefore, we take the opportunity to present an updated and comprehensive review of otherwise scarce and scattered micro-residue descriptions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Akerman, K., Fullagar, R., & Van Gijn, A. (2002). Weapons and Wunan: Production, function and exchange of Kimberley points. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 22, 13–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Artioli, G. (2010). Scientific methods and cultural heritage: An introduction to the a pplication of materials science to archaeometry and conservational science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Backwell, L., d’Errico, F., & Wadley, L. (2008). Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 1566–1580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, H. (2007). Starch residues on museum artefacts: Implications for determining tool use. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1752–1762.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, H. (2009). Starch granule taphonomy: The results of a two year field experiment. In M. Haslam, G. Robertson, A. Crowther, S. Nugent, & L. Kirkwood (Eds.), Archaeological science under a microscope : Studies in residue and ancient DNA analysis in honour of Thomas H. Loy (pp. 129–140). Canberra: ANU E press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, H., & Matthews, P. J. (2006). Taphonomy. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 75–94). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, H., Torrence, R., & Fullagar, R. (1998). Clues to stone tool function re-examined: Comparing starch grain frequencies on used and unused obsidian artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 1231–1238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, H., Piper, P. J., Rabett, R., & Reeds, I. (2009). Composite hunting technologies from the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene, Niah Cave, Borneo. Journal of Archaeological ­Science, 36, 1708–1714.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. R. (1985). Human ancestors: Changing views of their behavior. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 4, 292–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boëda, E., Geneste, J. M., Griggo, C., Mercier, N., Muhesen, S., Reyss, J. L., Taha, A., & Valladas, H. (1999). A Levallois point embedded in the vertebra of a wild ass (Equus africanus): Hafting, projectiles and Mousterian hunting. Antiquity, 73, 394–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonnichsen, R., Hodges, L., Ream, W., Field, K. G., Kirner, D. L., Selsor, K., & Taylor, R. E. (2001). Methods for the study of ancient hair: Radiocarbon dates and gene sequences from individual hairs. Journal of Archaeological Science, 28, 775–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borsheim, K. Y., Christensen, B. E., & Painter, T. J. (2001). Preservation of fish by embedment in Sphagnum moss, peat or holocellulose: Experimental proof of the oxopolysaccharidic nature of the preservative substance and of its antimicrobial and tanning action. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 2, 63–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruier, F. L. (1976). New clues to stone tool function: Plant and animal residues. American Antiquity, 41, 478–484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, N. A. (1990). Biology (2nd ed.). Redwood City: Benjamin/Cummings.

    Google Scholar 

  • Child, A. M. (1995). Towards an understanding of the microbial decomposition of archaeological bone in the burial environment. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22, 165–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connan, J., & Nissenbaum, A. (2003). Conifer tar on the keel and hull planking of the Ma’agan Mikhael Ship (Israel, 5th century BC): Identification and comparison with natural products and artefacts employed in boat construction. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30, 709–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowther, A., Haslam, M., Oakden, N., Walde, D., & Mercader, J. (2014). Documenting contamination in ancient starch laboratories. Journal of Archaeological Science , 49, 90–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J., & Deacon, J. (1980). The hafting, function and distribution of small convex scrapers with an example from Boomplaas Cave. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 35, 31–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devlin, R. M., & Witham, F. H. (1983). Plant physiology (4th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donald, A. M., Perry, P. A., & Waigh, T. A. (2001). The impact of internal granule structure on processing and properties. In T. L. Barsby, A. M. Donald, & P. J. Frazier (Eds.), Starch: Advances in structure and function (pp. 45–52). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisele, J. A., Fowler, D. D., Haynes, G., & Lewis, R. A. (1995). Survival and detection of blood residues on stone tools. Antiquity, 69, 36–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Font, J., Salvado, N., Buti, S., & Enrich, J. (2007). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as a suitable technique in the study of the materials used in waterproofing of archaeological amphorae. Analytica Chimica Acta, 598, 119–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R. (2006). Residues and usewear. In J. Balme & A. Paterson (Eds.), Archaeology in practice: A student guide to archaeological a nalysis (pp. 207–233). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R., & Field, J. (1997). Pleistocene seed grinding implements from the Australian arid zone. Antiquity, 71, 300–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R., & Jones, R. (2004). Usewear and residue analysis of stone artefacts from the Enclosed Chamber, Rocky Cape, Tasmania. Archaeology in Oceania, 39, 79–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R., Furby, J., & Hardy, B. L. (1996). Residues on stone artefacts: State of a scientific art. Antiquity, 70, 740–745.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R., Field, J., Denham, T., & Lentfer, C. (2006). Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp. ) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 595–614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gernaey, A. M., Waite, E. R., Collins, M. J., Craig, O. E., & Sokol, R. J. (2001). Survival and interpretation of archaeological proteins. In D. R. Brothwell & A. M. Pollard (Eds.), Handbook of archaeological sciences (pp. 323–329). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gidley, M. J. (2001). Starch structure/function relationships: Achievements and challenges. In T. L. Barsby, A. M. Donald, & P. J. Frazier (Eds.), Starch: Advances in structure and function (pp. 1–7). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gott, B., Barton, H., Samuel, D., & Torrence, R. (2006). Biology of starch. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 35–45). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, R. (1996). Use-wear analysis: The state of the art. Archaeometry, 38, 209–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gulliver, G. (1875). On the size and shape of red corpuscles of the blood of vertebrates, with drawings of them to a uniform scale, and extended and revised tables of measurements. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1875, 474–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundy, B. J., Mohney, K. W., Espenshade, C. T., Vish, A. T., & Sams, M. G. (2008). A few hours in the Piedmont: archaeological investigations of the site 7NC-B-54 (Ronald McDonald House). Unpublished report for the State of Delaware Department of Transportation, submitted by Skelly and Loy, Inc. Engineers-Consultants.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L. (1999). Microscopic residue analsys of stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic site of Starosele. In K. Monigal & V. Chabai (Eds.), The Middle Paleolithic of the Western Crimea (Vol. 2, pp. 197–209). Liegè: Liegè University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L., & Garufi, G. T. (1998). Identification of woodworking on stone tools through residue and use-wear analyses: Experimental results. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 177–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L., & Moncel, M.-H. (2011). Neanderthal use of fish, mammals, birds, starchy plants and wood 125–250,000 years ago. PLoS ONE, 6, e23768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L., Raff, R. A., & Raman, V. (1997). Recovery of mammalian DNA from Middle Paleolithic stone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 601–611.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L., Kay, M., Marks, A. E., & Monigal, K. (2001). Stone tool function at the Paleolithic sites of Starosele en Buran Kaya III, Crimea: Behavioral implications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 10972–10977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, B. L., Bolus, M., & Conard, N. J. (2008). Hammer or crescent wrench? Stone-tool form and function in the Aurignacian of southwest Germany. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 648–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, M. (2004). The decomposition of starch grains in soils: Implications for archaeological residue analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1715–1734.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, M. (2006). Potential misidentification of in situ archaeological tool-residues: Starch and conidia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 114–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helfman, G. S., Collette, B. B., Facey, D. E., & Bowen, B. W. (2009). The diversity of fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Backwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, A. G., Brooks, A. S., & Piperno, D. R. (2011). Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 486–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holdaway, S. (1989). Were there hafted projectile points in the Mousterian? Journal of Field Archeology, 16, 79–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Junqueira, L. C., Carniero, J., Kelly, R. O. (1998). Basic histology (9th ed.). New York: Lange Medical Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kars, H. (2003). Het bodemarchief is kwetsbaar. In H. Kars & A. Smit (Eds.), Handleiding fysiek behoud archeologisch erfgoed (pp. 1–6). Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakowicz, J. R. (2006). Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, J., & Loy, T. (2005). Seeing red: The use of Congo Red dye to identify cooked and damaged starch grains in the archaeological residues. Journals of Archaeological Science, 32, 1433–1440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G. H. J. (2006). Starch grain analysis on Late Iron Age grindstones from South Africa. Southern African Humanities, 18, 71–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G. H. J. (2010). Remains of the day-preservation of organic micro-residues on stone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 971–985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G. H. J. (2011). Discerning use-related micro-residues on tools. Testing the multi-stranded approach for archaeological studies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 985–1000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G. H. J. (2012a). Middle Stone Age pièces esquillées from Sibidu Cave, South Africa: An initial micro-residue study. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39, 1694–1704.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langejans, G. H. J. (2012b). Micro-residue analysis on Early Stone Age tools from Sterkfontein South Africa: A Methodological enquiry. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 67, 120–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillford, P. J., & Morrison, A. (1997). Structure/function relationship of starches in food. In P. J. Frazier, P. Richmond, & A. M. Donald (Eds.), Starch: Structure and functionality (pp. 1–8). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2004). Distribution patterns of organic residues on Middle Stone Age points from Sibudu Cave, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 59, 37–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2005). Evidence of hunting and hafting during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A multianalytical approach. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 279–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2006a). Direct evidence for the use of ochre in the hafting technology of Middle Stone Age tools from Sibudu Cave. Southern Africa Humanities, 18, 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2006b). First impressions of the functions and hafting technology of Still Bay pointed artefacts from Sibudu Cave. Southern Africa Humanities, 18, 27–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2007). The gripping nature of ochre: The association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 406–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2008). Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: Micro-residue analysis of segments from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Including Appendix A. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 26–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2011). Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: Further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1918–1930.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M. (2014). In situ presumptive test for blood residues applied to 62 000-year-old stone tools. South African Archaeological Bulletin 69, 80–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Haidle, M. N. (2012). Thinking a bow-and-arrow set: Cognitive implications of Middle Stone Age bow and stone-tipped arrow technology. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22, 237–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Parson, I. (2011). What happened to the human mind after the Howiesons Poort? Antiquity, 85, 1433–1443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Phillipson, L. (2010). Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity, 84, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Wadley, L. (2007). The morphological identification of micro-residues on stone tools using light microscopy: Progress and difficulties based on blind tests. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 155–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., & Wadley, L. (2009). The impact of micro-residue studies on South African Middle Stone Age research. In M. Haslam, G. Robertson, A. Crowther, S. Nugent, & L. Kirkwood (Eds.), Archaeological science under a microscope: Studies in residue and ancient DNA analysis in honour of Thomas H. Loy (pp. 11–28). Canberra: ANU E press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard, M., Parsons, I., & Van der Rijst, M. M. (2004). Middle Stone Age lithic point experimentation for macro-fracture and residue analyses: The first set of experiments and preliminary results with reference to Sibudu Cave points. South African Journal of Science, 100, 159–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy, T. H. (1983). Prehistoric blood residues: Detection on tool surfaces and identification of species of origin. Science, 220, 1269–1271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy, T. H. (1993). The artifact as site: An example of the biomolecular analysis of organic residues on prehistoric tools. World Archaeology, 25, 44–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy, T. H. (1998). Blood on the axe. New Scientist, 159, 40–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy, T. (2006). Optical properties of potential look-alikes. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 123–124). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy, T., & Barton, H. (2006). Post-excavation contamination and measures for prevention. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 165–167). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, T. (2006). The survival of starch residues in a subtropical environment. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 80–81). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mauseth, J. D. (1988). Plant anatomy. Menlo Park: Benjamin/Cummings.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milanesi, C., Bigliazzi, I., Faleri, C., Caterina, B., & Cresti, M. (2011). Microscope observations and DNA analysis of wine residues from Roman amphorae found in Ukraine and from bottles of recent Tuscan wines. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 3675–3680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milo, R. G. (1998). Evidence for hominid predation at Klasies River Mouth, South Africa, and its implications for the behaviour of early modern humans. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25, 99–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monnier, G. F., Ladwig, J. L., & Porter, S. T. (2012). Swept under the rug: The problem of unacknowledged ambiguity in lithic residue identification. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39, 3284–3300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, D. T., & Rowley, J. C. (2005). Visual Histology.com. http://www.visualhistology.com/products/atlas/index.html. Accessed 21 Mar 2008.

  • Murphy, D. B. (2001). Fundamentals of light microscopy and electronic imaging. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, M. E., Ceri, H., & Kooyman, B. (1996). The use of immunological techniques in the analysis of archaeological materials—a response to Eisele; with report of studies at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. Antiquity, 70, 677–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, M. E., Yohe Ii, R. M., Kooyman, B., & Ceri, H. (1997). “Blood” from stones? Probably: A response to Fiedel. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 1023–1027.

    Google Scholar 

  • Painter, T. J. (1991). Lindow man, Tollund man and other peat-bog bodies: The preservative and antimicrobial action of Sphagnan, a reactive glycuronoglycan with tanning and sequestering properties. Carbohydrate Polymers, 15, 123–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piperno, D. R., Weiss, E., Holst, I., & Nadel, D. (2004). Processing of wild cereal grains in the Upper Palaeolithic revealed by starch grain analysis. Nature, 430, 670–673.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piperno, D. R., Ranere, A. J., Holst, I., Iriarted, J., & Dickauc, R. (2009). Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 5019–5024.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plisson, H., & Beyries, S. (1998). Pointes ou outils triangulaires? Données fonctionnelles dans le Mousterian Levantin. Paléorient, 24, 5–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinsloo, L. C., Wadley, L., & Lombard, M. (2013). Infrared reflectance spectroscopy as an analytical technique for the study of residues on stone tools: potential and challenges. Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 732–739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raven, P. H., Evert, R. F., & Eichhorn, S. E. (1992). Biology of plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roler, K. L., & Clark, G. A. (1997). Use-wear analysis of Levallois Points from the ’Ain Difla Rockshelter, West-Central Jordan. In H. G. K. Gebel, Z. Kafafi, & G. O. Rollefson (Eds.), The prehistory of Jordan II, perspectives from 1997 (pp. 101–109). Berlin: Ex Oriente.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rost, F., & Oldfield, R. (2000). Photography with a microscope. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rots, V., & Williamson, B. S. (2004). Microwear and residue analyses in perspective: The contribution of ethnoarchaeological evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1287–1299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schleiden, M. J. (1849). Principles of scientific botany. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, H. J., & Holloway, R. G. (1979). Organic residue analysis in determining stone tool function. In B. Hayden (Ed.), Lithic use-wear analysis (pp. 385–399). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (1989). A functional study of the lithic industries associated with hominid fossils in the Kebara and Quafzeh caves, Israel. In P. Mellars & C. Stringer (Eds.), The human revolution, behavioural and biological perspectives on the o rigin of modern humans (pp. 612–625). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. J. (1993). Lithic use-wear evidence for hunting in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. In P. Anderson, S. Beyries, M. Otte, & H. Plisson (Eds.), Traces et fonction: Les gestes retrouvés (pp. 21–30). Liège: Université de Liège Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sisk, M. L., & Shea, J. J. (2009). Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 2039–2047.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sisk, M. L., & Shea, J. J. (2011). The African origin of complex projectile technology: An analysis using tip cross-sectional area and perimeter. International Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 2011, Article ID 968012, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. R., & Wilson, M. T. (2001). Blood residues in archaeology. In D. R. Brothwell & A. M. Pollard (Eds.), Handbook of archaeological sciences (pp. 313–322). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner, M. C. (1994). Honor among thieves, a zooarchaeological study of Neanderthal ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Summerhayes, G. R., Leavesley, M., Fairbairn, A., Mandui, H., Field, J., Ford, A., & Fullagar, R. (2010). Human adaptation and plant use in highland New Guinea 49,000–44,000 years ago. Science, 330, 78–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teerink, B. J. (1991). Hair of West European mammals. Atlas and identification key. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torrence, R. (2006). Description, classification and identification. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 115–143). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungent, D., Pozorski, S., & Pozorski, T. (1981). Prehistoric remains from the sweet potato from the Casma Valley, Peru. Phytologia, 49, 401–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungent, D., Pozorski, S., & Pozorski, T. (1982). Archaeological potato tuber remains from the Casma Valley of Peru. Economic Botany, 36, 182–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villa, P., & Soriano, S. (2010). Hunting weapons of Neanderthals and early modern humans in South Africa: Similarities and differences. Journal of Anthropological Research, 66, 5–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Stokar, W. (1938). Prehistoric organic remains. Antiquity, 12, 82–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2009). Post-depositional heating may cause over-representation of red coloured ochre in Stone Age sites. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 64, 166–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L. (2010). Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 58, 179–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., & Lombard, M. (2007). Small things in perspective: The contribution of our blind tests to micro-residue studies on archaeological stone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 1001–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., & Mohapi, M. (2008). A Segment is not a monolith: Evidence from the Howiesons Poort of Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2594–2605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., Lombard, M., & Williamson, B. (2004). The first residue analysis blind tests: Results and lessons learnt. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1491–1501.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T., & Grant, M. (2009). Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 9590–9594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley, L., & Langejans, G. H. J. (2014). Preliminary study of scrapers around combustion features in layer SS, Sibudu, 58 000 years ago. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 69, 19–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, B. S. (2006). Investigation of potential contamination on stone tools. In R. Torrence & H. Barton (Eds.), Ancient starch research (pp. 89–90). Walnut Creek: Left Coast.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, B., & Heath, J. W. (2002). Wheather’s functional histology: A text and colour Atlas (4th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zarrillo, S., Pearsall, D. M., Raymond, J. S., Tisdale, M. A., & Quon, D. J. (2008). Directly dated starch residues document early formative maize (Zea mays L.) in tropical Ecuador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 5006–5011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. R. (1973). Blood cells preserved in a mummy 2000 years old. Science, 180, 303–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. R. (2001). The study of preserved human tissue. In D. R. Brothwell & A. M. Pollard (Eds.), Handbook of archaeological sciences (pp. 249–257). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the editors João Marreiros, Juan F. Gibaja, and Nuno Bicho for inviting us to write a chapter for this volume, and colleagues and friends who took the time to comment on, and review the draft manuscript. We also acknowledge Lyn Wadley for her continued support to the micro-residue work in South Africa, and Thea de Wet for housing the micro-TRACKS laboratory in the Centre for Language and Culture at the University of Johannesburg. GL’s research is sponsored by Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research with a Veni grant (the Netherlands). The research of ML is funded by the African Origins Platform of the National Research Foundation of South Africa. Opinions and mistakes, however, remain our own.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Anthropological Research, University of Johannesburg, Private Bag 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa

    Geeske H. J. Langejans

  2. Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, PO box 9515, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Geeske H. J. Langejans

  3. Department of Anthropology and Development Studies, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa

    Marlize Lombard

Authors
  1. Geeske H. J. Langejans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marlize Lombard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Geeske H. J. Langejans .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    João Manuel Marreiros

  2. Institució Milà i Fontanals, Barcelona, Spain

    Juan F. Gibaja Bao

  3. Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Nuno Ferreira Bicho

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Langejans, G., Lombard, M. (2015). About Small Things and Bigger Pictures: An Introduction to the Morphological Identification of Micro-residues on Stone Tools. In: Marreiros, J., Gibaja Bao, J., Ferreira Bicho, N. (eds) Use-Wear and Residue Analysis in Archaeology. Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08257-8_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation