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Food Law in Canada: A Canvass of History, Extant Legislation and Policy Framework

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Abstract

In this chapter, the structure, content and process of food regulation in Canada are examined. For ease of analysis, our analysis is structured into three main parts. Part 1 introduces the subject-matter of the history of Canadian food safety regime, and food labelling requirements. Part 2 explores extant federal and provincial regulatory frameworks with emphases on “product of Canada” requirements, organic food governance as well as public health issues in Canada. Part 3 deals with trade in food products, focusing on both import and export trade as well as on inter-provincial trade in food products. Part 3 concludes the chapter by examining international food trade regulatory instruments as they affect Canada.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Buckingham (2005), p. 148.

  2. 2.

    Echols (2001), pp. 13–28.

  3. 3.

    Id., p. 15.

  4. 4.

    Grivetti (2000); Messer (2000), pp. 1495–1513.

  5. 5.

    Rozin (2006); Messer (2000), pp. 1476–1485, 1478.

  6. 6.

    For a history of each regions and foods introduced from where see: Civitello (2008), p. 83.

  7. 7.

    For history of a particular plant food or spices see in general Kiple (2000).

  8. 8.

    Janick (2000).

  9. 9.

    Juniper and Mabberley (2006), p. 46.

  10. 10.

    Yaren (2001).

  11. 11.

    Hutt (1984b).

  12. 12.

    Hutt (1984a).

  13. 13.

    Accum (1820).

  14. 14.

    London (2014).

  15. 15.

    Id.

  16. 16.

    Buckingham (2005).

  17. 17.

    London (2014).

  18. 18.

    1869, 32-33 Vict., c. 37.

  19. 19.

    Mitchell et al. (2001).

  20. 20.

    Buckingham (2005), p. 134.

  21. 21.

    1841 (15 Victoria), c. 45 (Can.); replaced by Act for the Inspection of Four, Indian Meal and Oatmeal 1856, 19-20 Victoria, c. 87 (Can.) and amend by the Act for the Inspection of Flour and Meal, 1859 (22 Victoria) c. 48 (Can.).

  22. 22.

    1859 (22 Victoria) c. 48 (Can.); in Consolidated Statutes of Canada and Upper Canada, Title 4 Trade and Commerce.

  23. 23.

    1859 (22 Victoria) c. 50 (Can.); in Consolidated Statutes of Canada and Upper Canada, Title 4 Trade and Commerce.

  24. 24.

    1859 (22 Victoria) c. 52 (Can.) in Consolidated Statutes of Canada and Upper Canada, Title 4 Trade and Commerce.

  25. 25.

    S.C. 1874 (Can.).

  26. 26.

    Buckingham (2005), p. 135. For a detailed discussion of food safety and regulation, see also Halsbury’s Laws of Canada Food ( 2014 Reissue); Fuller and Buckingham (1999); Benson (1996) with particular reference to Saskatchewan; and Purich (1982).

  27. 27.

    An Act to Impose Licence Duties on Compounders of Spirits; to Amend the Act Respect the Inland Revenue; and to Prevent the Adulteration of Food, Drink and Drugs. Proclaimed: January 1, 1875.

  28. 28.

    Pugsley (1967).

  29. 29.

    S.C. 1884 (47 Victoria), c. 34 (Can.).

  30. 30.

    Buckingham (2005), pp. 134–148.

  31. 31.

    S.C. 1920, c. 27 (Can.); R.S.C. 1927, c 76 (Can.); 1952, c. 123, 1952-53, c. 38, R.S.C. 1970, c. F-27 (Can.), and finally R.S.C. 1985, c. F-27 (Can.).

  32. 32.

    Pugsley (1967), p. 449.

  33. 33.

    S.C. 1920, c. 27 (Can.); R.S.C. 1927, c 76 (Can); 1952, c. 123, 1952-53, c. 38, R.S.C. 1970, c. F-27 (Can); and R.S.C. 1985, c. F-27; s. 5(a) (Can.).

  34. 34.

    Id., s. 5(b).

  35. 35.

    Id., s. 5 (c).

  36. 36.

    Id., s. 5(d).

  37. 37.

    Id., s. 5(h).

  38. 38.

    Id., s. 5(e).

  39. 39.

    Id., s. 5(f).

  40. 40.

    Id., s. 5(g).

  41. 41.

    Standard Sausage Co. v Lee (1934) 1 D.L.R. 706 (Can. B.C. S.C.).

  42. 42.

    Pugsley (1967), pp. 424–425.

  43. 43.

    Buckingham (2005), pp. 134–148.

  44. 44.

    Pugsley (1967), pp. 387–449.

  45. 45.

    S.C. 1907 (6-7 Edward VII) c. 27 (Can.); successor repealed 1985.

  46. 46.

    Buckingham (2005), p. 134.

  47. 47.

    Fruit, Vegetables and Honey Act, S.C. 1935, c. 672 (Can.); Natural Products Marketing Act, 1934, c. 57 (Can.); Canada Agricultural Products Standards Act, 1934, c. 57 (Can.) (progenitor of the Canada Agricultural Products Act (CAPA)); see also CRC c. 287, Honey Regulations under the CAPA.

  48. 48.

    S.C. 1997. c. 6 (Can.).

  49. 49.

    Canada Food Safety and Inspection Act (Bill C-80) died on the order paper.

  50. 50.

    R.S.C. 1985, C-38 (Can.).

  51. 51.

    Id. s. 4.

  52. 52.

    Buckingham (2005).

  53. 53.

    Halsbury’s Laws of Canada, 1st ed., Agriculture, p. 125.

  54. 54.

    Note 52, Id.

  55. 55.

    Halsbury’s Laws of Canada, 1st ed., Agriculture, p. 125. See, R v Manitoba Grain C. [1922] M.J. No. 4, 66 D.L.R. 406 (Can. MAN).

  56. 56.

    Halsbury’s Laws of Canada, 1st ed., Agriculture, p. 125. See, King v Eastern Terminal Elevator Co., [1925] 3 D.L.R. 1 (S.C.C.) (Can.).

  57. 57.

    For a detailed list of cases see Fuller and Buckingham (1999), pp. 142–144; and marketing boards history see R v Bradford Fertilizer Co., [1971] O.J. No. 1763, [1972] 1 O.R. 229: 167–172. Fertilizers Are Behind the Gate; R v Laboratoires Sagi Inc., [1985] C.S.P. 1073 (Can Que. C.S.P.). Animal Feed is Behind the Gate.

  58. 58.

    Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 (Can.).

  59. 59.

    Id. Note 53.

  60. 60.

    Id. Note 55.

  61. 61.

    s. 91(27), Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 (Can.); see also R. v Wetmore, S.C.J. No. 74, [1983] 2 S.C.R. 284 (S.C.C.) (Can.).

  62. 62.

    Labatt Brewing co. v Canada (Attorney General), [1979] S.C.J. No. 134, [1980] 1 S.C.R. 914 (S.C.C.) (Can).

  63. 63.

    Note 59, Id.

  64. 64.

    Canada Agricultural Products Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. 20 (4th Supp.), s. 2. See, the Safe Food for Canadians Act, 2012.

  65. 65.

    Note 66, infra.

  66. 66.

    Halbury’s Laws of Canada (2014) Reissue.

  67. 67.

    R.S.C., 1985, c. 25 (1st Supp.) (Can.).

  68. 68.

    R.S.C., 1985, c. G-10 (Can.).

  69. 69.

    R.S.C., 1985, c. 20 (4th Supp.) (Can.).

  70. 70.

    R.S.C., 1985, c. F-27 (Can.).

  71. 71.

    R.S.C., 1985, c. C-38 (Can.).

  72. 72.

    CAPA s.15 (Can.).

  73. 73.

    For instance see CAPA, ss. 21–28 (Can.).

  74. 74.

    Meat Inspection Regulations, 1990 (S.O.R. 90/288) (Can.).

  75. 75.

    Canada Grain Regulations, C.R.C., c.889 (Can.).

  76. 76.

    CAPA, s. 2 (Can.).

  77. 77.

    R.S.C. 1985, c. 25 (1st Supp.) (Can.).

  78. 78.

    Meat Inspection Regulations, S.O.R. 90/288, Schedule III (Can.).

  79. 79.

    Id., s. 94.

  80. 80.

    Id., Schedule I, Columns I - IV.

  81. 81.

    S.O.R. 90/288 (Can.).

  82. 82.

    Id., s. 94 (9).

  83. 83.

    Id., s. 61 et al.

  84. 84.

    Id., Schedule II, Column I - II.

  85. 85.

    Id., s. 103(1).

  86. 86.

    Id., s. 118.

  87. 87.

    Id., Schedule IV, Columns I - II.

  88. 88.

    Livestock and Poultry Carcass Grading Regulations, S.O.R./92-541 (Can.).

  89. 89.

    Id., Schedule I under ss. 64–64.

  90. 90.

    Fish Inspection Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. F-12; Fish Inspection Regulations, C.R.C. c. 802.

  91. 91.

    Canada Grain Regulations, C.R.C., c. 889; Canada Grain Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. G-10.

  92. 92.

    Canada Grain Act R.S.C., 1985, c. G-10. ss. 3–15 (Can.).

  93. 93.

    Canada Grain Regulations, C.R.C. c. 889 s. 5(1)(2), Schedule 3 (Can.).

  94. 94.

    Id.

  95. 95.

    Satin (1999), pp. 220–221.

  96. 96.

    Id., p. 220.

  97. 97.

    Caporeal (2002).

  98. 98.

    S.O.R., 79 – 840 (Can.).

  99. 99.

    C.R.C., c. 284 (Can.).

  100. 100.

    C.R.C., c. 285 (Can.).

  101. 101.

    C.R.C., c. 287 (Can.).

  102. 102.

    S.O.R./92-541 (Can.).

  103. 103.

    C.R.C., c.289 (Can.).

  104. 104.

    Organic Products Regulations, 2009, S.O.R./2009-176 (Can.).

  105. 105.

    Processed Egg Regulations C.R.C., c. 290 (Can.).

  106. 106.

    Processed Products Regulation C.R.C., c. 291 (Can.).

  107. 107.

    Dairy Regulations, S.O.R. 79 - 840, s. 6(2)(a)(b) (Can.).

  108. 108.

    Processed Products Regulation C.R.C., c. 291, s. 26 (Can.).

  109. 109.

    See Endres (2007), Conford (2001), Pollen (2001), Guthman (2004), Guthman (2003).

  110. 110.

    Friedland (2005).

  111. 111.

    Endres (2007).

  112. 112.

    Note 113, infra.

  113. 113.

    Organic Products Regulations 2009; SOR/2009-176 (Can.). There is no Organic Act. These regulations are promulgated under the Canada Agricultural Products Act, (CAPA).

  114. 114.

    “Organic Production Systems, General Systems and Management Systems”; (2006) CAN/CGSB-32-310-2006.

  115. 115.

    Organic Production Systems Permitted Substances List, under Canada General Standards Safety Board.

  116. 116.

    Canada Organic Regime Quality Management System Manual: online http://www.ota.com/standards/canadian.html.

  117. 117.

    Organic Regulations, op. cit., s. 22.

  118. 118.

    Id., s. 30.

  119. 119.

    Id., s. 24.

  120. 120.

    Id., s. 27.

  121. 121.

    Prakash (2001).

  122. 122.

    Id. 81.

  123. 123.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2004).

  124. 124.

    Id.

  125. 125.

    The history of scientific crop breeding versus commercial crop breeding is in James (2005).

  126. 126.

    Oczek (2000).

  127. 127.

    Fernandez-Cornejo (2004).

  128. 128.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2004).

  129. 129.

    Oczek (2000).

  130. 130.

    Fernandez-Cornejo (2004), p. 4.

  131. 131.

    Oczek (2000).

  132. 132.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2004), pp. 61–62.

  133. 133.

    Murphy (2007), supra n. 26.

  134. 134.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2004), p. 16.

  135. 135.

    Favret (1962).

  136. 136.

    Eichelbaum et al. (2001).

  137. 137.

    Federoff and Brown (2005), p. 24.

  138. 138.

    Murphy (2007), supra n. 30.

  139. 139.

    Id.

  140. 140.

    Id.

  141. 141.

    Jacobsen and Schouten (2007).

  142. 142.

    Id. 2-3.

  143. 143.

    National and Medicine 25.

  144. 144.

    Id. 26.

  145. 145.

    Murphy (2007), 42; Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen (1988).

  146. 146.

    Murphy (2007), supra n. 43.

  147. 147.

    Id. There is an asymmetric version of the technique using a micro-dissection of a nucleus so as to only transfer a limited number of chromosomes from the donor, for instance a wild, unrelated species; Murphy (2007), 43.

  148. 148.

    Custers supra n. 7; Murphy (2007), supra n. 43.

  149. 149.

    Id. at 39.

  150. 150.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2006). Colchicine is a powerful toxin and carcinogen. Prakash (2003).

  151. 151.

    Fedoroff and Brown (2006).

  152. 152.

    Id. 43; Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen.

  153. 153.

    Lewin (1997); McHughen (2000) pp. 24–32.

  154. 154.

    Gupta and Ram (2004), p. 220; McHughen (2000), p. 31.

  155. 155.

    Lewin (1997). The vector can be biological, physical or chemical. Kunich (2001). The biological vectors include Agrobacterium that has the natural capability to transfer DNA from its cells to plants cells during infection. Physical methods include particle bombardment, microinjection, sonicatin, silicon carbide (SiC) whisker treatment and electric current pulse. Gupta and Ram 221. Chemically based techniques include transfection using liposomes and polyethylene glycol. Gupta and Ram 221; Murphy (2007), 46.

  156. 156.

    McHughen (2000). Since only some of the cells in the target organism are modified, it is necessary to destroy the non-modified cells. Here an event gene and a marker gene are regenerated in the presence of a selective agent (antibiotic) for which the marker and event gene have tolerance.

  157. 157.

    Mandel (2004).

  158. 158.

    Winn (1999).

  159. 159.

    Id. 668.

  160. 160.

    Mandel (2006), p. 85.

  161. 161.

    Miller (2004).

  162. 162.

    Ainley and Kumpatla (2004), p. 243.

  163. 163.

    Id. 243, 51.

  164. 164.

    Gao (2004), pp. 297–344. Parekh (2004), p. 305.

  165. 165.

    Do GMOs Mean More Allergies? (2005), EU Commission. Online: http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/human_health/192.gmos_mean_more_allergies.html.

  166. 166.

    Gao (2004), p. 305; Sir David King, GM Science Review.

  167. 167.

    Sir David King, GM Science Review 54.

  168. 168.

    Henry Miller Rifkin Redux, 2006, Food Safety Network (U of Guelph). Online: http://archives.foodsafetynetwork.ca/agnet/2006/7-2006/agnet_july_4.html, 4 Jul 2006; Murphy (2007), 51.

  169. 169.

    Id.

  170. 170.

    Murphy (2007), 52.

  171. 171.

    Id., pp. 52–53.

  172. 172.

    Barrett, pp. 71–132.

  173. 173.

    Rastogi (2005).

  174. 174.

    Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations, Safety Considerations for Industrial, Agricultural and Environmental Applications of Organisms Derived by Recombinant DNA Technologies (OECD, 1986) 42, paragraphs 2 & 3.

  175. 175.

    Prince, pp. 220–221; Rastogi (2005).

  176. 176.

    Yarrow (2001), pp. 101–02.

  177. 177.

    Allelix was later bought out by Pioneer.

  178. 178.

    Yarrow (2001), p. 102. (Repeat of 176).

  179. 179.

    Id.

  180. 180.

    Roberts (2007), p. 7. See also Chapter 5, Section 16, Crop: Breeding & Misconceptions.

  181. 181.

    Reimer and Schwartz (2001).

  182. 182.

    Id.

  183. 183.

    Id.

  184. 184.

    Seeds Regulations C.R.C. c. 1400 s. 107(1) (Can.).

  185. 185.

    Id. slide 14.

  186. 186.

    Seeds Regulations, C.R.C., c. 1400, s. 110(1)(2) (Can.). The requirements include: details of the donor organism; the methods of incorporation, if applicable, and details relating to expression of the novel trait, the stability of the incorporation, and a comparison of the characteristics of the plants derived from the modified seed with those derived from the unmodified host seed; all other information and test data that are relevant to identifying the risk to the environment, including the risk to human health; a list of other government agencies, either Canadian or foreign, that have been provided with information in respect of the PNT and the purpose for which the information was provided; a description of the analytical methodologies followed in generating any submitted data, including quality control and quality assurance procedures; the proposed starting date, completion date, and site of the confined release.

  187. 187.

    Rastogi (2005), slide 25.

  188. 188.

    Yarrow (2001), p. 107.

  189. 189.

    Seeds Regulations C.R.C., c. 1400, s. 108 (Can.).

  190. 190.

    Demek et al., p. 4.

  191. 191.

    Miller (2003).

  192. 192.

    Food and Drug Regulations, C.R.C. c. 870 (Can.).

  193. 193.

    Smyth et al., p. 27.

  194. 194.

    Id. 29.

  195. 195.

    Rasco (2008), p. 178.

  196. 196.

    Gamma radiation was used to silence two genes—one produced a toxin, the other an anti-nutrient. Conko (2003).

  197. 197.

    Barrett and Abergel, p. 6.

  198. 198.

    Directive 2001/18, in particular annex 1A, & 1B.

  199. 199.

    Voluntary Labelling and Advertising of Foods that Are and Are Not Produces of Genetic Engineering, CAN/CBSB-32-3152004; Guidance for Industry: Voluntary Labelling Indicating Whether Foods Have or Have Not Been Developed Using Bioengineering: 656 Fed Reg (2001) 4,839–4,840.

  200. 200.

    Canadian Guidelines, para. 6.1.4.

  201. 201.

    Food and Drugs Act R.S.C. 1985 c. F-27 (Can.); Food and Drug Regulations C.R.C., c. 870 Div. 2-28 op. cit.

  202. 202.

    Id., ss. B.01.450 - B.01.453.

  203. 203.

    Proposed changes to the look of the Nutrition Facts Table and the List of Ingredients. Online: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/label-etiquet/nutrition-facts-valeur-nutritive-fs-fr-eng.pdf (2014).

  204. 204.

    SOR/2011 - 28, February 4, 2011, Enhanced Labelling for food Allergen and Gluten Sources and Added Sulphites.

  205. 205.

    FDA Regs ss. B.26.003 - B.26.005.

  206. 206.

    Id., ss.B.15.001 - B.15.003.

  207. 207.

    Schlachter (2007).

  208. 208.

    Id.

  209. 209.

    Id.

  210. 210.

    Id.

  211. 211.

    Id.

  212. 212.

    Id.

  213. 213.

    Hansen-Kuhn and Hellinger (2003), p. 52.

  214. 214.

    Id.

  215. 215.

    Hellman (2008), p. 3.

  216. 216.

    Hansen-Kuhn and Hellinger (2003), p. 56.

  217. 217.

    Id.

  218. 218.

    Id.

  219. 219.

    Hellman (1988), p. 61.

  220. 220.

    Id. 4.

  221. 221.

    Barndt (2002), p. 175.

  222. 222.

    Otero (2011).

  223. 223.

    Id.

  224. 224.

    Id.

  225. 225.

    Id.

  226. 226.

    Angeles Villarreal and Fergusson (2014).

  227. 227.

    Id.

  228. 228.

    De Schutter (2011).

  229. 229.

    Id.

  230. 230.

    Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada. Online: http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/index.aspx?lang=eng.

  231. 231.

    Dupuis (2014).

  232. 232.

    Peter (2010).

  233. 233.

    Online: http://www.tradejustice.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/EUCAN_DECLARATION_EN.pdf.

  234. 234.

    MacRae (2014).

  235. 235.

    Fekete (2013).

  236. 236.

    Statistics and Market Information. CANSEA Agri-Food Update (2014) Online: http://www.ats-sea.agr.gc.ca/ase/5028-eng.htm#g.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Osgoode Hall Law School, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Ikechi Mgbeoji

  2. Ryersion University, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Stan Benda

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  1. Ikechi Mgbeoji
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Correspondence to Ikechi Mgbeoji .

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  1. Food Law International, LLP, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Gabriela Steier

  2. Food Law International, LLP, Washington, DC, USA

    Kiran K. Patel

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Mgbeoji, I., Benda, S. (2016). Food Law in Canada: A Canvass of History, Extant Legislation and Policy Framework. In: Steier, G., Patel, K. (eds) International Food Law and Policy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07542-6_31

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