Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Neurobiological Findings in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Evidence Based Treatments for Trauma-Related Psychological Disorders

Abstract

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are present across cultures, with the only differences being the indigenous ways in which affected individuals deal with them. Hence, there must be a common underlying basis for these symptoms. The development of an intense memory for the traumatic experiences encountered, and associated neurobiological alterations, may explain the cross-cultural occurrence of similar PTSD symptoms.

This chapter presents selected neurobiological findings in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the framework of a neurobiological model of PTSD, the fear network model, which explains the development of strong associative emotional-sensory memories for traumatic events. With repeated exposure to traumatic stressors, this associative network gets strengthened but at the same time detached from the corresponding contextual information. After introducing this theoretical background, we next review current knowledge on genetic risk factors for PTSD development, followed by epigenetic alterations found in trauma survivors with PTSD. This is followed by a section on physiological alterations associated with a diagnosis of PTSD. We elaborate on structural and functional alterations in the brain of trauma survivors with PTSD, which correspond well with the assumptions of the fear network model. Furthermore, we summarize evidence that trauma exposure and subsequent PTSD can have adverse physical health consequences, such as cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases, and accelerate the aging process, increasing the risk for the earlier onset of age-related diseases. We illustrate on a molecular level which processes increase disease risk in traumatized populations. Finally, we show that at least some PTSD-associated molecular alterations might be reversible through treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adenauer, H., Pinösch, S., Catani, C., Gola, H., Keil, J., Kissler, J., & Neuner, F. (2010). Early processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder-evidence for a cortical vigilance-avoidance reaction. Biological Psychiatry, 68(5), 451–458.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adenauer, H., Catani, C., Gola, H., Keil, J., Ruf, M., Schauer, M., & Neuner, F. (2011). Narrative exposure therapy for PTSD increases top-down processing of aversive stimuli – Evidence from a randomized controlled treatment trial. BMC Neuroscience, 12(1), 127.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Apfel, B. A., Ross, J., Hlavin, J., Meyerhoff, D. J., Metzler, T. J., Marmar, C. R., et al. (2011). Hippocampal volume differences in Gulf War veterans with current versus lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Biological Psychiatry, 69(6), 541–548.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armony, J. L., Corbo, V., Clément, M.-H., & Brunet, A. (2005). Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(10), 1961–1963.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bachmann, A. W., Sedgley, T. L., Jackson, R. V., Gibson, J. N., Young, R. M., & Torpy, D. J. (2005). Glucocorticoid receptor polymorphisms and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(3), 297–306.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. N., Goenjian, A. K., Noble, E. P., Walling, D. P., Ritchie, T., & Goenjian, H. A. (2010). PTSD and dopaminergic genes, DRD2 and DAT, in multigenerational families exposed to the Spitak earthquake. Psychiatry Research, 178(3), 507–510.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, E. B. (2009). The role of FKBP5, a co-chaperone of the glucocorticoid receptor in the pathogenesis and therapy of affective and anxiety disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(Suppl 1), S186–S195.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, E. B., Bradley, R. G., Liu, W., Epstein, M. P., Deveau, T. C., Mercer, K. B., et al. (2008). Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA, the Journal of the American Medical Association, 299(11), 1291–1305.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino, J. A. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical illness: Results from clinical and epidemiologic studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 141–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino, J. A., Erlich, P. M., Hoffman, S. N., Rukstalis, M., & Stewart, W. F. (2011). Association of FKBP5, COMT and CHRNA5 polymorphisms with PTSD among outpatients at risk for PTSD. Psychiatry Research, 188(1), 173–174.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino, J., Erlich, P. M., Hoffman, S. N., & Zhang, X. (2012). Higher FKBP5, COMT, CHRNA5, and CRHR1 allele burdens are associated with PTSD and interact with trauma exposure: Implications for neuropsychiatric research and treatment. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 8, 131–139.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670–686.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M., & Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117(1), 210–232.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brohawn, K. H., Offringa, R., Pfaff, D. L., Hughes, K. C., & Shin, L. M. (2010). The neural correlates of emotional memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 68(11), 1023–1030.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, R. A., Felmingham, K. L., Falconer, E. M., Pe Benito, L., Dobson-Stone, C., Pierce, K. D., & Schofield, P. R. (2010). Preliminary evidence of the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene predicting poor response to cognitive behavior therapy in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 67(12), 1217–1219.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, S. R. W. L., & Blackburn, E. H. (2004). Telomeres and telomerase. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 359(1441), 109–122.

    PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, S.-C., Koenen, K. C., Galea, S., Aiello, A. E., Soliven, R., Wildman, D. E., et al. (2012). Molecular variation at the SLC6A3 locus predicts lifetime risk of PTSD in the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e39184.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelis, M. C., Nugent, N. R., Amstadter, A. B., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Genetics of post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and recommendations for genome-wide association studies. Current Psychiatry Reports, 12(4), 313–326.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Quervain, D. J.-F., Kolassa, I.-T., Ertl, V., Onyut, P. L., Neuner, F., Elbert, T., & Papassotiropoulos, A. (2007). A deletion variant of the α2b-adrenoceptor is related to emotional memory in Europeans and Africans. Nature Neuroscience, 10(9), 1137–1139.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickie, E. W., Brunet, A., Akerib, V., & Armony, J. L. (2008). An fMRI investigation of memory encoding in PTSD: Influence of symptom severity. Neuropsychologia, 46(5), 1522–1531.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickie, E. W., Brunet, A., Akerib, V., & Armony, J. L. (2011). Neural correlates of recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder: A longitudinal fMRI investigation of memory encoding. Neuropsychologia, 49(7), 1771–1778.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiGangi, J., Guffanti, G., McLaughlin, K. A., & Koenen, K. C. (2013). Considering trauma exposure in the context of genetics studies of posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 3(1), 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drury, S. S., Theall, K. P., Keats, B. J. B., & Scheeringa, M. (2009). The role of the dopamine transporter (DAT) in the development of PTSD in preschool children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(6), 534–539.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckart, C., Engler, H., Riether, C., Kolassa, S., Elbert, T., & Kolassa, I.-T. (2009). No PTSD-related differences in diurnal cortisol profiles of genocide survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(4), 523–531.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, G., Liang, G., Aparicio, A., & Jones, P. A. (2004). Epigenetics in human disease and prospects for epigenetic therapy. Nature, 429(6990), 457–463.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., Bisson, J., Clark, D. M., Creamer, M., Pilling, S., Richards, D., et al. (2010). Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 269–276.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elbert, T., & Schauer, M. (2002). Burnt into memory – Psychological trauma. Nature, 419, 883.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elzinga, B. M., & Bremner, J. D. (2002). Are the neural substrates of memory the final common pathway in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? Journal of Affective Disorders, 70(1), 1–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Entringer, S., Epel, E. S., Kumsta, R., Lin, J., Hellhammer, D. H., Blackburn, E. H., et al. (2011). Stress exposure in intrauterine life is associated with shorter telomere length in young adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(33), E513–E518.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., & Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(49), 17312–17315.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epel, E., Merkin, S., Cawthon, R., Blackburn, E., Adler, N., & Pletcher, M. (2008). The rate of leukocyte telomere shortening predicts mortality from cardiovascular disease in elderly men. Aging (Albany NY), 1, 81–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 20–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller-Thomson, E., & Brennenstuhl, S. (2009). Making a link between childhood physical abuse and cancer: Results from a regional representative survey. Cancer, 115(14), 3341–3350.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (2002). Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 5(11), 1242–1247.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glaesmer, H., Brähler, E., Gündel, H., & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2011). The association of traumatic experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder with physical morbidity in old age: A German population-based study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73(5), 401–406.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gola, H., Engler, H., Sommershof, A., Adenauer, H., Kolassa, S., Schedlowski, M., et al. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with an enhanced spontaneous production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 40.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, B. D., Tolliver, T. J., Huang, S. J., Li, Q., Bengel, D., & Murphy, D. L. (1999). Genetic variation in the serotonin transporter promoter region affects serotonin uptake in human blood platelets. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88(1), 83–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guarraci, F. A., Frohardt, R. J., Falls, W. A., & Kapp, B. S. (2000). The effects of intra-amygdaloid infusions of a D2 dopamine receptor antagonist on Pavlovian fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 114(3), 647–651.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hauer, D., Weis, F., Papassotiropoulos, A., Schmoeckel, M., Beiras-Fernandez, A., Lieke, J., et al. (2011). Relationship of a common polymorphism of the glucocorticoid receptor gene to traumatic memories and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after intensive care therapy. Critical Care Medicine, 39(4), 643–650.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. P., Hayes, S. M., & Mikedis, A. M. (2012). Quantitative meta-analysis of neural activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 2(1), 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heils, A., Teufel, A., Petri, S., Stöber, G., Riederer, P., Bengel, D., & Lesch, K. P. (1996). Allelic variation of human serotonin transporter gene expression. Journal of Neurochemistry, 66(6), 2621–2624.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. (2009). Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums, 14, 13–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema, J. M., Annas, P., Neale, M. C., Kendler, K. S., & Fredrikson, M. (2003). A twin study of the genetics of fear conditioning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(7), 702–708.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hold, G. L., & El-Omar, E. M. (2008). Genetic aspects of inflammation and cancer. The Biochemical Journal, 410(2), 225–235.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, K. C., & Shin, L. M. (2011). Functional neuroimaging studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 11(2), 275–285.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kananen, L., Surakka, I., Pirkola, S., Suvisaari, J., Lönnqvist, J., Peltonen, L., et al. (2010). Childhood adversities are associated with shorter telomere length at adult age both in individuals with an anxiety disorder and controls. PLoS ONE, 5(5), e10826.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karl, A., Schaefer, M., Malta, L. S., Dörfel, D., Rohleder, N., & Werner, A. (2006). A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in PTSD. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(7), 1004–1031.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khansari, N., Shakiba, Y., & Mahmoudi, M. (2009). Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress as a major cause of age-related diseases and cancer. Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery, 3(1), 73–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Koenen, K. C., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Galea, S., Resnick, H. S., et al. (2007). The serotonin transporter genotype and social support and moderation of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in hurricane-exposed adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(11), 1693–1699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, N., Vaccarino, V., Kutner, M., Weiss, P., & Bremner, J. D. (2005). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 88(1), 79–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klengel, T., Mehta, D., Anacker, C., Rex-Haffner, M., Pruessner, J. C., Pariante, C. M., et al. (2012). Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene–childhood trauma interactions. Nature Neuroscience, 16(1), 33–41.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenen, K. C., Uddin, M., Chang, S.-C., Aiello, A. E., Wildman, D. E., Goldmann, E., & Galea, S. (2011). SLC6A4 methylation modifies the effect of the number of traumatic events on risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 28(8), 639–647.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolassa, I.-T., & Elbert, T. (2007). Structural and functional neuroplasticity in relation to traumatic stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 321–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolassa, I.-T., Ertl, V., Eckart, C., Glöckner, F., Kolassa, S., Papassotiropoulos, A., et al. (2010a). Association study of trauma load and SLC6A4 promoter polymorphism in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence from survivors of the Rwandan genocide: Trauma load, genetics and risk for PTSD [Somatosensory evoked potentials in the acute phase of focal cerebral ischemia]. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(5), 543–547.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolassa, I.-T., Ertl, V., Eckart, C., Kolassa, S., Onyut, L. P., & Elbert, T. (2010b). Spontaneous remission from PTSD depends on the number of traumatic event types experienced. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(3), 169–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolassa, I.-T., Kolassa, S., Ertl, V., Papassotiropoulos, A., & de Quervain, D. J.-F. (2010c). The risk of posttraumatic stress disorder after trauma depends on traumatic load and the catechol-o-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism. Biological Psychiatry, 67(4), 304–308.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kühn, S., & Gallinat, J. (2013). Gray matter correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 73(1), 70–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, J. R., Kaloupek, D. G., & Woodward, S. H. (2012). Amygdala volume in combat-exposed veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(10), 1080.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, H. M., Papolos, D. F., Saito, T., Yu, Y. M., Szumlanski, C. L., & Weinshilboum, R. M. (1996). Human catechol-O-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: Description of a functional polymorphism and its potential application to neuropsychiatric disorders. Pharmacogenetics, 6(3), 243–250.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16(6), 495–512.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux, J. (2003). The self: Clues from the brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1001, 295–304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liberzon, I., & Sripada, C. S. (2008). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: A critical review. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 151–169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lonsdorf, T. B., Weike, A. I., Nikamo, P., Schalling, M., Hamm, A. O., & Ohman, A. (2009). Genetic gating of human fear learning and extinction: Possible implications for gene-environment interaction in anxiety disorder. Psychological Science, 20(2), 198–206.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lonsdorf, T. B., Ruck, C., Bergstrom, J., Andersson, G., Ohman, A., Lindefors, N., et al. (2010). The COMTval158met polymorphism is associated with symptom relief during exposure-based cognitive-behavioral treatment in panic disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 10, 99.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maercker, A., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Cloitre, M., van Ommeren, M., Jones, L. M., Humayan, A., Kagee, A., Llosa, A. E., Rousseau, C., Somasundaram, D. J., Souza, R., Suzuki, Y., Weissbecker, I., Wesseley, S. C., First, M. B., & Reed, G. M. (2013). Diagnosis and classification of disorders specifically associated with stress: Proposals for ICD-11. World Psychiatry : Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 12(3), 198–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malan-Müller, S., Seedat, S., & Hemmings, S. M. J. (2013). Understanding posttraumatic stress disorder: Insights from the methylome. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 13(1), 52–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manolio, T. A., Collins, F. S., Cox, N. J., Goldstein, D. B., Hindorff, L. A., Hunter, D. J., et al. (2009). Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature, 461(7265), 747–753.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGaugh, J. L., & Roozendaal, B. (2002). Role of adrenal stress hormones in forming lasting memories in the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 12(2), 205–210.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, P. O., Sasaki, A., D’Alessio, A. C., Dymov, S., Labonté, B., Szyf, M., et al. (2009). Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nature Neuroscience, 12(3), 342–348.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, D., Klengel, T., Conneely, K. N., Smith, A. K., Altmann, A., Pace, T. W., et al. (2013). Childhood maltreatment is associated with distinct genomic and epigenetic profiles in posttraumatic stress disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(20), 8302–8307.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meneses, A., & Liy-Salmeron, G. (2012). Serotonin and emotion, learning and memory. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 23(5–6), 543–553.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mercer, K. B. (2012). Acute and posttraumatic stress symptoms in a prospective gene × environment study of a university campus shooting. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(1), 89.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe, J., & Jacobs, W. (1996). A “hot-system/cool-system” view of memory under stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, 1996(7), 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. (2010). Psychiatry. Beyond DSM: Seeking a brain-based classification of mental illness. Science, 327(5972), 1437.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mollica, R. F., McInnes, K., Poole, C., & Tor, S. (1998). Dose-effect relationships of trauma to symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among Cambodian survivors of mass violence. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 173(6), 482–488.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morath, J., Gola, H., Sommershof, A., Hamuni, G., Kolassa, S., Catani, C., et al. (2014a). The effect of trauma-focused therapy on the altered T cell distribution in individuals with PTSD: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 54, 1–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morath, J., Moreno-Villanueva, M., Hamuni, G., Kolassa, S., Ruf-Leuschner, M., Schauer, M., et al. (2014b). Effects of psychotherapy on DNA strand break accumulation originating from traumatic stress. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83(5), 289–297.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno-Villanueva, M., Morath, J., Vanhooren, V., Elbert, T., Kolassa, S., Libert, C., et al. (2013). N-glycosylation profiling of plasma provides evidence for accelerated physiological aging in post-traumatic stress disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 3(10), e320.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morey, R. A., Gold, A. L., LaBar, K. S., Beall, S. K., Brown, V. M., Haswell, C. C., et al. (2012). Amygdala volume changes in posttraumatic stress disorder in a large case-controlled veterans group. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(11), 1169.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munafò, M. R., Brown, S. M., & Hariri, A. R. (2008). Serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype and amygdala activation: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 63(9), 852–857.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mushtaq, D., Ali, A., Margoob, M. A., Murtaza, I., & Andrade, C. (2012). Association between serotonin transporter gene promoter-region polymorphism and 4- and 12-week treatment response to sertraline in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 955–962.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadel, L., Hupbach, A., Gomez, R., & Newman-Smith, K. (2012). Memory formation, consolidation and transformation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(7), 1640–1645.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Karunakara, U., Klaschik, C., Robert, C., & Elbert, T. (2004). Psychological trauma and evidence for enhanced vulnerability for posttraumatic stress disorder through previous trauma among West Nile refugees. BMC Psychiatry, 4(1), 34.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, T. W., & Heim, C. M. (2011). A short review on the psychoneuroimmunology of posttraumatic stress disorder: From risk factors to medical comorbidities. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(1), 6–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patti, G. J., Yanes, O., & Siuzdak, G. (2012). Innovation: Metabolomics: The apogee of the omics trilogy. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 13(4), 263–269.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzak, R. H., Galea, S., Southwick, S. M., & Gelernter, J. (2013). Examining the relation between the serotonin transporter 5-HTTPLR genotype x trauma exposure interaction on a contemporary phenotypic model of posttraumatic stress symptomatology: A pilot study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148(1), 123–128.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radtke, K. M., Ruf, M., Gunter, H. M., Dohrmann, K., Schauer, M., Meyer, A., & Elbert, T. (2011). Transgenerational impact of intimate partner violence on methylation in the promoter of the glucocorticoid receptor. Translational Psychiatry, 1(7), e21.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research–past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 376–382.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ressler, K. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2000). Role of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 12(Suppl 1), 2–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robjant, K., & Fazel, M. (2010). The emerging evidence for Narrative Exposure Therapy: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1030–1039.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rockstroh, B., & Elbert, T. (2010). Traces of fear in the neural web – Magnetoencephalographic responding to arousing pictorial stimuli. International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology, 78(1), 14–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues, S. M., LeDoux, J. E., & Sapolsky, R. M. (2009). The influence of stress hormones on fear circuitry. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 32, 289–313.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sack, W. H., Clarke, G. N., & Seeley, J. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder across two generations of Cambodian refugees. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(9), 1160–1166.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M., Uno, H., Rebert, C. S., & Finch, C. E. (1990). Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 10(9), 2897–2902.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2010). Dissociation following traumatic stress. Etiology and treatment. Journal of Psychology, 218(2), 109–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schauer, M., Neuner, F., Karunakara, U., Klaschik, C., Robert, C., & Elbert, T. (2003). PTSD and the “building block” effect of psychological trauma among West Nile Africans. European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Bulletin, 10(2), 5–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schauer, M., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2011). Narrative exposure therapy: A short-term treatment for traumatic stress disorders (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnurr, P. P., & Jankowski, M. K. (1999). Physical health and post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and synthesis. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4(4), 295–304.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segman, R. H., Cooper-Kazaz, R., Macciardi, F., Goltser, T., Halfon, Y., Dobroborski, T., & Shalev, A. Y. (2002). Association between the dopamine transporter gene and posttraumatic stress disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(8), 903–907.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen, S. S., Kim, J. S., & Weksler, M. E. (1999). Effect of age on thymic development, T cell immunity, and helper T cell function. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, 139, 123–139.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherin, J. E., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The neurobiological impact of psychological trauma. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13(3), 263–278.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, L. M., & Liberzon, I. (2009). The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 169–191.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. E. (2005). Bilateral hippocampal volume reduction in adults with post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of structural MRI studies. Hippocampus, 15(6), 798–807.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sommershof, A., Aichinger, H., Engler, H., Adenauer, H., Catani, C., Boneberg, E.-M., et al. (2009). Substantial reduction of naïve and regulatory T cells following traumatic stress. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 23(8), 1117–1124.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. B., Jang, K. L., Taylor, S., Vernon, P. A., & Livesley, W. J. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A twin study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1675–1681.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J. S., Jovanovic, T., Fani, N., Ely, T. D., Glover, E. M., Bradley, B., & Ressler, K. J. (2013). Disrupted amygdala-prefrontal functional connectivity in civilian women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47(10), 1469–1478.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, J. E., & Costa, M. (2003). Epigenetics and the environment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 983, 151–160.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teicher, M. H., Anderson, C. M., & Polcari, A. (2012). Childhood maltreatment is associated with reduced volume in the hippocampal subfields CA3, dentate gyrus, and subiculum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(9), E563–E572.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • True, W. R., Rice, J., Eisen, S. A., Heath, A. C., Goldberg, J., Lyons, M. J., et al. (1993). A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 257–264.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrka, A. R., Price, L. H., Kao, H.-T., Porton, B., Marsella, S. A., & Carpenter, L. L. (2010). Childhood maltreatment and telomere shortening: Preliminary support for an effect of early stress on cellular aging. Biological Psychiatry, 67(6), 531–534.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valente, N. L. M., Vallada, H., Cordeiro, Q., Bressan, R. A., Andreoli, S. B., Mari, J. J., & Mello, M. F. (2011). Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) val158met polymorphism as a risk factor for PTSD after urban violence. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 43(3), 516–523.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. (2005). Developmental Trauma Disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanhooren, V., Dewaele, S., Libert, C., Engelborghs, S., de Deyn, P. P., Toussaint, O., et al. (2010). Serum N-glycan profile shift during human ageing. Experimental Gerontology, 45(10), 738–743.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varki, A. (Ed.). (2008). Essentials of glycobiology (2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Zglinicki, T., & Martin-Ruiz, C. M. (2005). Telomeres as biomarkers for ageing and age-related diseases. Current Molecular Medicine, 5(2), 197–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, I. C. G., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., et al. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7(8), 847–854.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilker, S., & Kolassa, I.-T. (2013). The formation of a neural fear network in posttraumatic stress disorder: Insights from molecular genetics. Clinical Psychological Science, 1(4), 452–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willeit, P., Willeit, J., Mayr, A., Weger, S., Oberhollenzer, F., Brandstätter, A., et al. (2010). Telomere length and risk of incident cancer and cancer mortality. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 304(1), 69–75.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, O. T. (2009). Stress and memory in humans: Twelve years of progress? Brain Research, 1293, 142–154.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woon, F. L., & Hedges, D. W. (2009). Amygdala volume in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 21(1), 5–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woon, F. L., Sood, S., & Hedges, D. W. (2010). Hippocampal volume deficits associated with exposure to psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: A meta-analysis. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 34(7), 1181–1188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie, P., Kranzler, H. R., Poling, J., Stein, M. B., Anton, R. F., Brady, K., et al. (2009). Interactive effect of stressful life events and the serotonin transporter 5-HTTLPR genotype on posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis in 2 independent populations. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(11), 1201.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, P., Kranzler, H. R., Poling, J., Stein, M. B., Anton, R. F., Farrer, L. A., & Gelernter, J. (2010). Interaction of FKBP5 with childhood adversity on risk for post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(8), 1684–92.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, P., Kranzler, H. R., Farrer, L., & Gelernter, J. (2012). Serotonin transporter 5-HTTLPR genotype moderates the effects of childhood adversity on posttraumatic stress disorder risk: A replication study. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 159(6), 644–652.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, X., Brown, A. D., Lazar, M., Cressman, V. L., Henn-Haase, C., Neylan, T. C., et al. (2013). Spontaneous brain activity in combat related PTSD. Neuroscience Letters, 547, 1–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Halligan, S. L., & Bierer, L. M. (2001). Relationship of parental trauma exposure and PTSD to PTSD, depressive and anxiety disorders in offspring. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 35(5), 261–270.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zantvoord, J. B., Diehle, J., & Lindauer, R. J. (2013). Using neurobiological measures to predict and assess treatment outcome of psychotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder: Systematic review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(3), 142–151.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zen, A. L., Whooley, M. A., Zhao, S., & Cohen, B. E. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with poor health behaviors: Findings from the Heart and Soul Study. Health Psychology, 31(2), 194–201.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, T.-Y., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the environmental regulation of the genome and its function. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 439–466, C1–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Clinical & Biological Psychology, Institute of Psychology & Education, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89069, Ulm, Germany

    Iris-Tatjana Kolassa, Sonja Illek, Sarah Wilker & Alexander Karabatsiakis

  2. Clinical Psychology & Neuropsychology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany

    Thomas Elbert

Authors
  1. Iris-Tatjana Kolassa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sonja Illek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sarah Wilker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Alexander Karabatsiakis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Thomas Elbert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Iris-Tatjana Kolassa .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

    Ulrich Schnyder

  2. Dissemination & Training Division, National Center for PTSD, San Franciso, California, USA

    Marylène Cloitre

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kolassa, IT., Illek, S., Wilker, S., Karabatsiakis, A., Elbert, T. (2015). Neurobiological Findings in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. In: Schnyder, U., Cloitre, M. (eds) Evidence Based Treatments for Trauma-Related Psychological Disorders. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07109-1_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07109-1_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-07108-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-07109-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation