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In-situ Structure Characterization of Elastomers during Deformation and Fracture

Part of the book series: Springer Theses ((Springer Theses))

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Abstract

This chapter introduces the reader to the fields of research covered by this thesis and gives an overview of rubber materials, rubber processing, rubber reinforcement, X-ray scattering and diffraction, strain-induced crystallization, and cavitation in natural rubber. The chapter aims to provide the required background for the reading of this thesis to non-experts, but is also of interest to the experienced researcher, giving a broad literature review, citing more than 200 literature references.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Sometimes thermoplastic elastomers are also classified as rubbers. These materials are melt-processable and are physically crosslinked rather than chemically.

  2. 2.

    Other sources, like dandelion and guayule (Parthenium argentatum), have been explored, but are not significant in practice.

  3. 3.

    Vinyl groups result from the 1,2-polymerization of butadiene, in contrast to the more common 1,4-polymerization.

  4. 4.

    Own tests showed that a standard formulation of natural rubber, including 1 phr sulfur, 1 phr stearic acid and 1.5 phr CBS (accelerator, N-cyclohexyl-2-benzothiazole-sulfenamide), but not containing any zinc oxide, would not vulcanize within 1 h at \(160\,^{\circ }\text {C}\).

  5. 5.

    \(G\) is the shear modulus; \(N\) is the number of chains per unit volume; \(k\) is the Boltzmann constant; \(T\) is the absolute temperature.

  6. 6.

    Nowadays, all industrially relevant standard carbon blacks for mechanical reinforcement are of N type, but historically other grades were common.

  7. 7.

    OAN: oil absorption number.

  8. 8.

    Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide.

  9. 9.

    Only IR grades with high cis-content can undergo SIC. Furthermore, IR crystallizes only in the crosslinked state [79].

  10. 10.

    Of course, the comparison should not be taken too quantitatively. NR and SBR are chemically different, and moreover NR has an inherent network resulting from its natural impurities and endgroup functionalization. However, from a practical point of view, reinforced SBR can often replace reinforced NR in less demanding applications.

  11. 11.

    The stretch ratio \(\alpha \) is defined as \(\alpha = \frac{l}{l_0}\), where \(l_0\) is the undeformed length and \(l\) is the deformed length. The relation between the stretch ratio \(\alpha \) and the strain \(\epsilon \) is \(\alpha = 1+\epsilon \).

  12. 12.

    The term pure shear might be somewhat misleading.Pure shear Simply speaking, the pure shear specimen is a tensile specimen with one of its dimensions transversal to the tensile direction being much larger than its extension along the tensile direction, such that transversal strains are restricted to one dimension. The name results from the fact that this deformation field can theoretically be obtained by exerting shear forces on the edges of the sample, along with a rotation of the sample [16].

  13. 13.

    In the framework of the FOR 597 research group, tear fatigue experiment were carried out on a Coesfeld machine at TU Chemnitz.

  14. 14.

    As opposed to grazing incidence geometry.

  15. 15.

    The brilliance is the photon flux (i.e. photons per time and per beam cross sectional area) normalized by solid angle (cf. beam divergence or collimation) and 0.1 % bandwidth (cf. monochromacity).

  16. 16.

    Following Eq. 1.15, the amplitude of a wave scattered by a proton is \(\left( \frac{m_p}{m_0}\right) ^2=3.37 \times 10^{6}\) times less than the amplitude of a wave scattered by an electron.

  17. 17.

    For a detailed derivation of Eq. 1.15, the reader is referred to Berne and Pecora [140].

  18. 18.

    Other definitions exist in literature, taking the form factor as the square of the definition in Eq. 1.19.

  19. 19.

    Dispersions with a particle volume fraction below 1 % are typically considered dilute [139].

  20. 20.

    Theoretically, the complete real space information can be restored under certain conditions if the coherence time of the incident beam is long relative to the exposure time. This is part of the motivation behind the development of X-ray free electron lasers (XFEL).

  21. 21.

    For a derivation, see e.g. Guinier [136].

  22. 22.

    For an overview of diffraction theories, see e.g. Ewald [146].

  23. 23.

    In polymer science, higher order diffraction peaks are frequently concealed due to imperfections and finite size effects.

  24. 24.

    Katz called it fibering what is now termed strain-induced crystallization.

  25. 25.

    Some dispute exists in literature about the precise value of the \(\beta \) angle, taking values up to 93\(^{\circ }\), suggesting a monoclinic unit cell.

  26. 26.

    The terms cavitation and void formation are often used interchangeably, however some authors prefer to use voids to describe stable hollow regions in thermoplastics and other glassy materials, whereas cavities is used in the context of elastomers for hollow regions growing in an unstable manner [194].

  27. 27.

    Unfilled typically specifies materials without reinforcing filler. Recipes containing additives like zinc oxide are thus classified as unfilled.

  28. 28.

    It should be noted that the rubbers studied by LeCam contained the unusually high amount of 10 phr of zinc oxide, which possibly stimulates cavitation.

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  1. Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Department of Mechanics and Structure, Dresden, Germany

    Karsten Brüning

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    Karsten Brüning

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Brüning, K. (2014). Introduction. In: In-situ Structure Characterization of Elastomers during Deformation and Fracture. Springer Theses. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06907-4_1

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