Abstract
Planck was a devoutly religious person and believed in an almighty, omniscient, and benevolent God – not in a personal sense but as a deity [Gottheit] identical in character with the power of natural law. He was convinced that religion and science, properly conceived, could not be in conflict; that both had the absolute as their goal and provided shelter for the believer. In Berlin Grunewald Planck served for almost three decades as a churchwarden. His views on science and religion are expressed most unreservedly and most comprehensively in a lecture of 1937 on Religion and the Natural Sciences. In this lecture he sought to clarify the question whether knowledge acquired in the sciences is compatible with the religious sentiments for a scientist brought up in the spirit of the exact sciences.
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Notes
- 1.
Max Planck, Religion und Naturwissenschaft. Vortrag gehalten im Baltikum (1937), sixth unaltered edition Leipzig 1938, 8.
- 2.
Planck, Religion (1938), 9.
- 3.
Planck, Religion (1938), 9–11.
- 4.
Planck, Religion (1938), 15–16.
- 5.
Planck, Religion (1938), 20–21.
- 6.
Planck, Religion (1938), 29–30.
- 7.
Planck, Religion (1938), 32.
- 8.
Paul Feyerabend, Max Planck, The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 6 (1967) 313.
- 9.
Erich Dinkler, “Max Planck und die Religion,” Zeitscrift für Theologie und Kirche, Göttingen, 56 (1959) 201–223. For a cogently argued analysis of Planck’s philosophical views about physics correlated with his writings that touch on religion L. Jánossy, “Plancks philosophistische Ansichten in der Physik,” 389–407 in Max-Planck-Festschrift, Berlin, 1958.
- 10.
Dieter Hoffmann, Max Planck. Die Enstehung der modernen Physik, Munich, 2008. In chapter 5 on “Planck as the representative of German Science” (67–83) Author Hoffmann, who was born and brought up in the German Democratic Republic and was exposed to all its crisscrossing political and cultural trajectories, has shown persuasively and in a well-nuanced and document-rich account how Planck’s sense of duty, devotion to state, patriotism, German Protestantism, and loyalty to the crown meshed with and entered into his social, political, and scientific outlook on life. The author has known and discussed history of science matters with Dieter Hoffman since about 1984; that is, prior to and after the so-called Wende that unified the German Democratic Republic and Western Germany in 1989. Unfortunately, for scholars pursuing the personal lifestyle of Planck there essentially is no home-based Planck-Nachlass. Planck’s home on the Wangenheimstrass in Berlin-Dahlem, along with his correspondence, diaries, and scientific records, was all but totally destroyed in an aerial bomb attack in February 1944. The most important extant Planck documents include the archives of the institutions that were connected with Planck’s life: the University, the Academy, the Max Planck Society in Berlin, and Planck’s letters to his son Erwin and to his assistant Lise Meitner. Albert Einstein whose Collected Papers have been in the process of organization and publication since 1987, provides crucial documentary information for examining the life and work of Planck.
- 11.
Einstein to Paul Ehrenfest, 19. viii (1914), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, 84 (1998) Doc. 84, 56.
- 12.
Dieter Hoffmann, Die Entstehung… . (2008), 76–77.
- 13.
The Prussian order of Pour le merité was established in 1740 for high-ranking military and civil personnel by Frederick the Great and was extended by Frederick William IV of Prussia to include science and the arts in 1842.
- 14.
Dieter Hoffmann, Die Entstehung… . (2008) chapter 6. Zwischen Anpassung und Auflehnung: Das Dritte Reich, 84–103. John L. Heilbron, The Dilemmas of an Upright Man. Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science, Berkeley, 1986.
- 15.
Max Planck, Acht Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik, gehalten an der Columbia University in the City of New York im Frühjahr 1909, Leipzig, 1910.
- 16.
Dieter Hoffmann,. Max Planck. Die Enstehung… . (2008), 48.
- 17.
Leon Botstein, “Einstein and Music,” 161–175 and 331 in Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture, Princeton (2008), ed. by Peter Galison, Gerald Holton, and Silvan S. Schweber.
- 18.
The history of the Sing-Akademie in Berlin is one of the most fascinating chapters in Berlin’s musical culture. It was established in 1791 on the private initiative of a community of singers and instrumentalists who over the years performed most of the important choral works of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This included virtually all of the major choral works of Bach, Mozart, Händel, Haydn, Beethoven, Brahms, and Mendelssohn – several as premiere performances conducted by the composer. Planck was able, in his many Hausmusik encounters, both to draw on the resources of the Sing-Akademie and its musicians and participate with friends in their concerts. When the young Beethoven visited the Sing-Akademie in 1796 he was privileged to improvise for his audience. During the years that Planck was in Berlin, the Sing-Akademie offerings included, in addition to the works of the above-mentioned classical composers, the music of composers such as César Franck, Edward Elgar, Giuseppe Verdi, Max Reger, Hector Berlioz, and Richard Strauss. The indispensable history of the Sing-Akademie is recorded in the Staaatliches Institut für Musikforschung, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Die Sing-Akademie und ihre Direktoren, ed. by Gottfried Eberle and Michael Rautenberg, Berlin, 1998.
- 19.
Hans Kangro, Max Planck DSB, 11 (1975) 7.
- 20.
Dieter Hoffmann, Max Planck. Die Enstehung… . (2008), 11–12.
- 21.
Planck, Wissenschaftlische Selbstbiographie, Physikalische Abhandlungen und Reden, 3 (1958) 374–75.
- 22.
Planck, “Vom Relativen zum Absoluten,” Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, 3 (1958) 145.
- 23.
The group included Planck, the applied mathematician Carl Runge, the physicist Bernard Karsten (instigator of the Physikalische Gesellschaft that had been founded by six students at the University of Berlin in 1845), and the lawyer Adolf Leopold.
- 24.
Klaus Hentschel and Renate Tobies, Brieftagebuch zwischen Max Planck, Carl Runge, Bernhard Karsten und Adolf Leopold, Berlin, 1999.
- 25.
Armin Hermann, “Max Planck,” in Karl von Meÿenn (ed.), Die Grossen Physiker, vol. 2, Munich, 1997, 143–156.
- 26.
For information on Rheinberger: Anton Würz, “Joseph Gabriel Rheinberger,” MGG, 11 (1963) col. 377–381; Anton Würz and Siegfried Gmeinwieser, “Rheinberger,” NG, 21 (2001), 257–258; Wolfgang Hochstein, MGG, Personenteil 13 (2005), col. 1615–1621.
- 27.
Rheinberger’s students, apart from Planck, included: Engelbert Humperdinck, composer of Hänsel und Gretl (1890–1893, première Weimar under Richard Strauss); the Italian opera composer Ernanno Wolf-Ferrari; the Austrian composer Ludwig Thuille, professor of theory and composition at the Royal School of Music in Munich; Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886–1954), the leading German orchestra conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra in the 1920s and then the Berlin Philharmonic until his resignation in 1934; and two prominent Boston composers, Horatio Parker, professor of music at Yale, and G. W. Chadwick, director of the New England Conservatory in Boston. As recently as December 2007 one of Rheinberger’s best known cantatas, the Star of Bethlehem, Op. 164 (scored for soli, chorus, orchestra, and organ, and premiered in 1892 in the Dresden Kreuzkirche) was performed by the Dedham Choral Society (Boston environs) and orchestra.
- 28.
Würz, “Josef Rheinberger” MGG (1963), col. 380–381.
- 29.
Würz and Gmeinwieser, “Rheinberger” NG (2001), 257–258.
- 30.
The information that follows is taken from Wolfgang Hochstein, MGG Personenteil 13 (2005), col. 1619–1620.
- 31.
Ernst Wölfflin, “Begegnungen mit Max Planck,” Ciba-Symposium, 8 (3 Aug. 1960), 117–121. This article was called to my attention by my advisor and close friend Hans-jörg Rheinberger, Director, Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Berlin. Hans Jörg is Joseph Rheinberger’s grand-nephew.
- 32.
Max Planck, “L. A. Zellner, Vorträge über Akustik, Zwei Bände, Wien, Pest, Leipzig, 1892.” Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft, Leipzig, 8, (1892) 536–541. Leopold A. Zellner (1823–1894) was a Croatian-born Austrian music pedagogue and composer. He was the foremost master of music theory in Vienna and had succeeded Simon Sechter (1788–1867) (teacher of Schubert and Bruckner) as professor at the Conservatory in Vienna. Zellner was general secretary of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna, founded in 1812. Its Konservatorium became Vienna’s chief music school. Gustav Mahler and Hugo Wolf taught there toward the end of the century. Its Singverein, one of Vienna’s principal choirs, included among its conductors Brahms, Hans Richter, and Wilhelm Furtwängler.
- 33.
Planck, “Zellner Vorträge,” (1892), 537.
- 34.
Planck, “Zellner Vorträge,” (1892), 540.
- 35.
Planck, “Zellner Vorträge,” (1892), 541.
- 36.
Max Planck, “Ein neues Harmonium in natürlicher Stimmung nach dem System C. Eitz,” Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft, Berlin, 12 (1894) 8–9. The article also appeared in Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 49 (1893) 8–9, and is reproduced in Max Planck, Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, Braunschweig, vol. 1 (1958), 435–436. The construction and functioning of the Eitz harmonium that Helmholtz had commissioned before the publication in 1863 of Tonempfindungen, as well as the one that was installed in the Institute in Berlin in the 1890s, are discussed in connection with Chapter 8 in Helmholtz’s Tonempfindungen on pp. 105–106 and 125–127.
- 37.
Max Planck, Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie, Leipzig, 1948. Reprinted in Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, Braunschweig, 1948, Band III, 374–401. Quotations on 383–384. Dabei kam ich zu dem mir einigermaßen unvermuteten Ergebnis, daß unser Ohr die temperierte Stimmung unter allen Umständen der natürlichen Stimmung vorzieht.
- 38.
Max Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung in der modernen Vokalmusik.” Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft, Leipzig, 9 (1893) 418–440. The article is not included in Planck’s 3-volume Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge (Braunschweig, 1958). In view of Planck’s deep-seated scientific and humanistic interests in music (a topic which is touched upon by his colleague Max von Laue in the preface to Planck’s Physikalische Abhandlungen), this omission would appear to be unwarranted, especially since volume 3 of the collection includes 33 of Planck’s non-technical writings on subjects as varied in nature as his inaugural and celebratory public addresses, his historical and philosophical reflections, and his obituaries and personal reminiscences. I found no mention of this 1893 paper in any of the books, papers, or chronological lists on Planck with the single exception of Planck-Bibliographie. Zum Gedenken an seinem 50. Todestag am 14. Oktober 1997, Petra Hauke (ed.) (Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin-Dahlem) and published in Berichte und Mitteilungen, Heft 4/97 of the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Munich, 1997, 18.
- 39.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 418.
- 40.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 420–421.
- 41.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 424–425.
- 42.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 428–430.
- 43.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 431.
- 44.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 432.
- 45.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 438–439.
- 46.
Planck, “Die Natürliche Stimmung” (1893), 440.
- 47.
Max Planck. Zur Feier seines 60. Geburtstages. Die Naturwissenschaften, 6, (1918) 194–263. The issue includes articles by Arnold Sommerfeld (Munich), Emil Warburg (Berlin-Charlottenburg), Wilhelm Wien (Würzburg), Walther Nernst (Berlin), Max vs. Laue (Frankfurt/Main), Fritz Reiche (Berlin, Paul Epstein (Munich), and Marian Smoluchowski (Krakow).
- 48.
W. Wien, “Die Entwicklung von Max Plancks Strahlungstheorie,” Die Naturwissenschaften 207.
- 49.
P. Epstein, “Anwendungen der Quantenlehre in der Theorie der Serienspektren,” Die Naturwissenschaften 252–253.
- 50.
Fritz Reiche, “Die Quantentheorie. Ihr Ursprung und ihre Entwickelung,” Die Naturwissenschaften 225–230.
- 51.
Paul Forman and Armin Hermann, “Arnold J. Sommerfeld,” DSB, 12 (1975) 525–532.
- 52.
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), the Swedish inventor and industrialist, who made a fortune in the production and marketing of explosive devices at the end of the nineteenth century, stated in his will of 1895 that his entire fortune was left for the awarding of prizes “to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind.” Torsten Althin, “Alfred Nobel,” DSB, 10 (1974) 132–133.
- 53.
Arnold Sommerfeld, “Max Planck zum sechzigsten Geburtstag,” Die Naturwissenschaften, 6 (1918), 196.
- 54.
Sommerfeld, Die Naturwissenschaften (1918) 195.
- 55.
In 1937 Sommerfeld and Heisenberg had been labeled “white Jews of science” in the magazine of the SS. In 1940 Wilhelm Müller, one of the stalwarts of the Nazi movement, inherited Sommerfeld’s professorship in theoretical physics at the University.
- 56.
Arnold Sommerfeld, Max Planck zum Gedächtnis, Die Neue Zeitung, (6.10.1947); facsimile offprint, p. 333 in Archiv der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, hrsg. Lorenz Friedrich Beck, Max Planck und die Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin, 2008. Sommerfeld’s Atombau und Spektrallinien first appeared in 1919 and immediately became the bible of atomic physics. It continued to appear in successive editions almost annually through the early 1920s and chronicled the progress in this field until the introduction of quantum mechanics in 1926.
- 57.
Professor Max Planck. The Quantum Theory. The Times, London, 6.10.1947; facsimile offprint in Lorenz Friedrich Beck, Max Planck und die Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin, 2008, 334.
- 58.
Max von Laue. Trauersprache gehalten am 7. Oktober 1947 in der Albanikirche zu Göttingen. Lorenz Beck (ed.), Max Planck und die Max-Planck Gesellschaft (2008).
- 59.
E. Brücke (ed.), “Max Planck Gesellschaft,” Physikalische Blätter, 4 (1948), 132.
- 60.
Lorenz Friedrich Beck, Max Planck und die Max-Planck Gesellschaft (2008) 215–217; E. N. da C. Andrade, Max Planck Memorial Ceremony in Göttingen, Nature, No. 4098 (May 15, 1948) 751–752.
- 61.
Alfred Bertholet, “Erinnerungen an Max Planck,” Physikalische Blätter, 4 (1948) 161–162.
- 62.
Agnes von Zahn-Harnack (1884–1950), whose interests and activities in the emancipation of women began at age 30, was cofounder of the German society of academic women [Deutsche Akademikerinnenbundes] in Berlin in 1926. Except for the self-imposed exile during the Nazi era Harnack was politically active for the rest of her life in the support of conscientious objection to war and the promotion of women’s rights in church pulpits and in academic teaching positions. During the Third Reich she was a member of the private circle of dissidents that included Helmut Gollwitzer, the politically outspoken Protestant pastor and Professor of systematic theology at the university of Berlin, and the theologian Martin Niemöller, a World War I submarine commander who became the leader of the German Emergency League and The Confessing Church after the Hitler regime came to power in 1933. He was imprisoned in 1937 and liberated by the Allies in 1945. Agnes Harnack wrote: Die Frauenbewegung, Geschichte, Probleme, Ziele, Berlin, 1928, and Frauenfrage in Deutschland 1790–1930, Berlin 1934.
- 63.
Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) was one of Planck’s most important science benefactors and a crucial link in the establishment and growth of German science and industry. He provided the initiative for the founding of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft and from 1911 until his death served as its first president. By profession he was a Lutheran theologian. He authored a 3-volume Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1886–1890) and a 3-volume Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur (1893–1904).
- 64.
Agnes von Zahn-Harnack, “Erinnerungen von Max Planck,” Physikalische Blätter, 4 (1948) 165–167.
- 65.
The group included the theologian Adolf von Harnack, the historian Hans Delbrück, the acoustician Carl Stumpf, the physicists Eduard Grüneisen, Gustav Hertz, and Robert Pohl, and the chemists Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, and Otto von Baeyer.
- 66.
Wilhelm Westphal, “Erinnerungen an Max Planck,” Physikalische Blätter, 4 (1948) 167–179.
- 67.
Wilhelm Westphal, Max Planck als Mensch, Die Naturwissenschaften, 45 (1958) 234–236. Persons belonging to the choral group included Otto Hahn and Frau Grüneisen as soloists. In the singing circle were the experimental physicist Eduard Grüneisen, director of the division of electricity and magnetism at the PTR, Otto von Baeyer, spectroscopist at the PTR, and the children of Karl Stumpf, philosopher, psychologist, and musical acoustician, as well as the daughters, nephews, and nieces of Adolf von Harnack the church historian and president of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft and Hans Delbrück, church historian. The non-singing guests included Lise Meitner (faithfully), the radiation physicist Robert Pohl, and Gustav Hertz (Nobel in physics, 1925).
- 68.
J.R. Partington, “Erinnerungen an Max Planck,” Physikalische Blätter, 4 (1948) 172.
- 69.
Kristina Behnke, Hella Dungen-Löper, and others (eds.), 100 Jahre Villenkolonie Grunewald 1889–1989, Berlin, 1988. See in particular: Helga Gläser, Die Villenkolonie als Kulturelles Zentrum, pp. 63–93.
- 70.
Grunewald = Echo. Organ für den Amts- und Gemeindebezirk Grunewald. Jubiläums-Festschrift zum 30 jährigen Bestehen, Dec. 1899–Dec. 1929.
- 71.
The various address books of Grunewald for the years from 1900 into the 1930s constitute a virtual cornucopia of fin de siècle persona whose activities and published writings have become known worldwide. Among such as are given space in 100 Jähre Grunewald we may briefly identify, beyond those already mentioned, the following: Walther Rathenau (1867–1922), social theorist, statesman, author of politico-economic writings, minister of reconciliation who was assassinated in 1922 by nationalists and anti-semitic fanatics; Lilli Lehmann (1848–1929), coloratura soprano who wrote a timely textbook on the art of singing and was known for her skillful renditions of Schubert Lieder and Wagnerian opera music; Fritz Mauthner (1849–1923), philosopher of language, co-founder of Freie Bühne and author of Atheism and its History in the Occident; Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921), teacher in the Hochschule für Musik (located in his home), composer of stage and opera music the most famous of which was Hänsel und Gretel (premiered in Weimar under Richard Strauss); Gerhardt Hauptmann (1862–1946), recipient in 1912 of the Nobel Prize for Literature; Samuel Fischer 1859–1934), founder of Fischer Verlag Berlin (the most important German publisher from 1900 to 1933), editor of Neue Deutsche Rundschau and publisher of modern literary works by H. Ibsen, É. Zola, A. Schnitzer, T. Mann. H. Hesse, G. Hauptmann, G. B. Shaw, and O. Wilde; Fritz Kreisler (1875–1962), composer of violin music and operettas and most popular violinist in Germany and America; Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945), Protestant theologian, assistant professor University of Berlin who advocated a non-religious interpretation of biblical concepts and the worldliness of Christianity. He was executed in 1943 for his participation in the resistance movement; Walter Benjamin (1892–1940), Marxist critic of the spiritual and moral corruption of the middle class who fled to Spain and committed suicide there in 1940; Hans Delbrück (1848–1929), liberal historian and professor at the University of Berlin whose 4-volume History of the Art of Warfare promoted going beyond technical problems and linking warfare to politics and economics (his son Max Delbrück (1906–1981), the California biophysicist, was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1969); Adolph von Harnack (1851–1930), Protestant theologian and church historian at the University of Berlin, author of 3-volume textbook on the history of dogma (1886–1890), influential member of the Prussian Academy of Science, director of the Prussian state library, close friend to Planck, author of the famous 1909 memorandum that led to the establishment of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society of which he was the first president until his death in 1951 (Harnack’s daughter Agnes von Zahn-Harnack (1884–1950) was the presiding representative for German academic women and after 1945 active in the revival of the women’s emancipation movement); Max Reinhardt (1875–1943; pseudonym M. Goldmann), actor and stage manager whose productions and directions of gigantic plays at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin, beginning in 1905, were full of experimentation (revolving stage, and use of the entire auditorium), pageantry, and rousing mob scenes. He was forced to leave Germany in 1933 and emigrated to the United States in 1938; Werner Sombart (1863–1941), professor at the University of Berlin in political economy and sociology 1906–1941 who investigated the development of business economics from capitalism to socialism, wrote a 3-volume work on Modern Capitalism (1902–1928) in which he was critical of Marxism. During the Weimar republic he advocated national socialism and became an exponent of the authoritarian state, accepted the Nazi ideology, but eventually sought to distance himself from the Third German Reich.
- 72.
Lion Feuchtwanger, Die Geschwister Oppermann, Frankfurt, 1984, p. 211.
- 73.
Helga Gläser, “Die Villenkolonie als Kulturelles Zentrum” in 100 Jahre Villenkolonie Grunewald 1880–1989, Berlin, 1988, 63–94, but especially 88–93.
- 74.
Grunewald = Echo, “Veranstaltungsprogramm 100 Jahre Villenkolonie Grunewald,” Sept/Oct, 1989, 1–4.
- 75.
Max Planck, Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie, (1948) Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, III (1958) 397.
- 76.
Otto Hahn, “Einige persönliche Erinnerungen an Max Planck,” Mitteilungen aus der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Göttingen, Heft 5, 1957, 241–246.
- 77.
Lise Meitner, “Max Planck als Mensch,” Die Naturwissenschaften, 45 (1958) 406–408.
- 78.
In 1944 the 1943 Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to Otto Hahn “for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei” – a discovery, it must be added, whose theoretical interpretation as a fission phenomenon was given not by Otto Hahn and Friedrich Strassmann who carried out the experiments and published the announcements, but by Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch (1904–1979). They suggested, on the basis of Niels Bohr’s drop model of the nucleus that the bombardment of uranium with neutrons had caused the uranium to undergo fission. Having been forced to leave Berlin in 1938 because of German racial laws, Meitner was working at the time as director of a research group in Manne Siegbahn’s Institute in Stockholm and was able to stay in contact with Hahn in Berlin and Frisch in England by mail.
- 79.
Meitner, Max Planck als Mensch (1958) 406.
- 80.
Meitner, Max Planck als Mensch (1958) 408.
- 81.
Meitner, Max Planck als Mensch (1958) 406.
- 82.
Brian Foster, CERN, the violin and the music of the spheres, CERN Courier, Feb. 1, 2005.
- 83.
Max von Laue, “Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag,” Die Naturwissenschaften, 45 (1958) 221–226.
- 84.
Laue, “Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag” (1958) 221.
- 85.
Laue, “Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag” (1958) 225–226.
- 86.
Laue, “Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag” (1958) 226.
- 87.
Laue,“Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag” (1958) 221.
- 88.
Laue, “Zu Planck’s 100. Geburtstag” (1958) 223.
- 89.
Planck’s scientific autobiography was written in Göttingen the year during which he participated as the only German representative at the Royal Society of London’s celebration of Isaac Newton’s 300th birthday.
- 90.
Max Planck, “Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie,” Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, 3 (1958) 374–401. Quotation 383–384.
- 91.
See, e.g., Max Born, “Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck,” Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, 6 (1948) 165; Max von Laue, “Zu Max Planck’s 100. Geburtstag,” Die Naturwissenschaften, 45 (1958), 223; Armin Hermann, Max Planck, Reinbeck bei Hamburg, 1973, 25.
- 92.
In Dilemmas of an Upright Man. Max Planck as Spokesman for German Science, Berkeley, 1986, the historian of physics John Heilbron has presented a sensitive and meticulously researched reconstruction of Planck the father of quantum theory; he has examined in a balanced and critical way the moral dilemmas Planck faced as spokesman for science under the Wilhelmian Empire, the Weimar Republic, and the Third German Reich.
- 93.
Max Planck, “Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie,” Physikalische Abhandlungen und Vorträge, 3 (1958) 374.
- 94.
Max Planck, “Ueber irreversible Strahlungsvorgänge” (1899), Abhandlungen und Vorträge 1 (1958) 599–600.
- 95.
Max Planck, Acht Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik, Leipzig, 1910, 6–7. Erste Vorlesung 23. April 1909. Einleitung, Reversibilität und Irreversibilität.
- 96.
Max Born, “Max Planck,” Obituary Notices of the Fellows of the Royal Society, 6 (1948), 167.
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Hiebert, E. (2014). Objective Laws as Stepping Stones to the Deity of Creation. In: The Helmholtz Legacy in Physiological Acoustics. Archimedes, vol 39. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06602-8_18
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