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Five Legal Revolutions Since the 17th Century pp 1–34Cite as

What is Revolutionary in the Legal Construction of Modern States?

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Part of the book series: Studies in the History of Law and Justice ((SHLJ,volume 1))

Abstract

If one agrees to see the beginning of Modern States in Europe during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, the issue of the legal criteria for identifying such a revolution is more controversial. What are the differences between a city, an Empire, a decentralized pre-modern State and a modern State? This chapter focuses on the sea change in the use of legal sources (notably the growth of statutory norms) and on the rulers’ policy for reforming legal professions. The origins of the so-called “hierarchy of norms” are also questioned, in the context of great European kingdoms and colonial powers. The conclusion is in favour of these criteria for identifying a true legal revolution achieved in Modern States since the seventeenth century, first in Europe, then (until today) in the whole of the world.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Poggi, Gianfranco. 1978. The Development of the Modern State. Stanford: Stanford University Press and 1990 The State: its Nature, Development and Prospects. Stanford: Stanford University Press; Pierson, Christopher. 1996 and 2004. The Modern State. London: Routledge.

  2. 2.

    Stolleis, Michael. 2001. Public Law in Germany, 1800–1914. New York: Berghahn, 344 about the works of the German jurists Albrecht and Gerber, during the 19th century, and this notion of the State as a legal person.

  3. 3.

    Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 217–220.

  4. 4.

    Nicolet, Claude. 1990. “L’Empire romain est-il un État moderne”, in L’État moderne: le droit, l’espace et les formes de l’État, eds. Nicolas Coulet, Jean-Philippe Genet. Paris: éd. du CNRS, 111–127.

  5. 5.

    Troper, Michel. 1994. Pour une théorie juridique de l’État. Paris: PUF 156 and 194.

  6. 6.

    This question of imperial privileges (obtained through surprise) that could be contrary to the law is treated in the Codex Theodosianus, 1, 2, 2 and in the Codex Justinianus, 1, 22, 1 to 6.

  7. 7.

    Arnason, Johann P. 2011. “The Roman Phenomenon: State, Empire and Civilization” in The Roman Empire in Context. Historical and Comparative Perspectives, eds. Johann P. Arnason, Kurt A. Raaflaub. Oxford: Blackwell, 351–386. In the tradition of Theodor Mommsen’s Staatsrecht (1871–1888), Meyer, Ernst. 1964. Römischer Staat und Staatsgedanke. Zurich-Stuttgart: Artemis has developed the idea that the Roman image of statehood (first a city and an aristocratic state, then an imperial one with the parallel development of legislation and bureaucracy) was important for the formation of States in modern times.

  8. 8.

    Harding, Alan. 2002. Medieval Law and the Foundations of the State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 remarks that the word “status” was however employed during the High Middle Ages and considers that it is not necessary (as Quentin Skinner has proposed) to identify the State with “a form of public power separated from both the ruler and the ruled”.

  9. 9.

    Berman, Harold J. 1983. Law and Revolution: the formation of the Western Legal Tradition. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 434 (for England), 461 (for France) and 512 (for Spain).

  10. 10.

    Kantorowicz, Ernst, Hartwig. 1957. The King’s Two Bodies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  11. 11.

    Harding (n 8); Krynen, Jacques. 2009. L’État de justice: France, XIII e -XX e siècle. Paris: Gallimard, vol. I.

  12. 12.

    The Six Livres de la République (1576) were translated in English under the title Six Books of Commonwealth by Richard Knolles in 1606.

  13. 13.

    For example Strayer, Joseph R. 1973. On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State: Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  14. 14.

    Poggi (as n.1) 78; Lloyd, Howell A. 1983. The State, France and the Sixteenth Century. London-Boston-Sidney: George Allen and Unwin.

  15. 15.

    Meyer, Jean. 1983. Le poids de l’État. Paris: PUF; Brewer, John. 1989 The Sinews of Power. War, Money and the English State 1688–1783. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, especially 15 (comparing the 1,200 crown servants in Elizabethan time with the 40,000 officiers of the contemporary French monarchy), 29 (about the British army and navy trebling in one century) and 65–67 (about the growing number of civil servants in eighteenth century England).

  16. 16.

    Foucault, Michel. 2004. Naissance de la biopolitique. Cours au Collège de France 1978–1979. Paris: Gallimard-Le Seuil, 78–79 and 1994. Dits et écrits 1954–1988. Paris : Gallimard, vol. III, 655.

  17. 17.

    Foucault, Michel. 2004. Sécurité, territoire, population. Cours au Collège de France 1977–1978. Paris: Gallimard- Le Seuil, 252–253.

  18. 18.

    Harding n 8 quotes (p. 336) John Selden (saying in 1616 that there was a common law as soon as a State began in the land) to make this link between “ordered State” and legal order considered as “the life of the body politic”.

  19. 19.

    Kelsen, Hans. 1928. Der soziologische und der juristische Staatsbregriff, Tübingen: Mohr.

  20. 20.

    That is the reading developed by Troper (n 5) with the idea of the lack of a static and dynamic hierarchy of law in the so-called Roman law. This stimulating hypothesis attracts attention to some features of the Roman legal order (which has known rather a juxtaposition than a hierarchy of norms), but it does not prevent from associating the Roman legal order (in its different stages of evolution) with the presence (at least, at the time of the Severan dynasty) of a state apparatus.

  21. 21.

    Kelsen, Hans. 1945 and 2009. General Theory of Law and State. Clark: the Law Book Exchange, 19 gives the impression that he admits this conception when he is speaking of something common (in the existence of legal norms) between the “so called law of the ancient Babylonians” and “the law that prevails today in the United States”.

  22. 22.

    Kelsen, Hans. 1967 and 2008. Pure Theory of Law. Transl. Max Knight. Clark: The Lawbook Exchange, 286.

  23. 23.

    Kelsen (as n. 22) 228, 251 and 315.

  24. 24.

    Savigny, Karl von. 1831 and 2007. Of the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence. Clark 2007: The Law Book Exchange, 30.

  25. 25.

    Gouron, André. 1990. “La coutume en France au Moyen Âge”, in La Coutume. Recueil de la Société Jean Bodin, Bruxelles: De Boeck, vol. LII, 205; Jacob, Robert. 2001. “Les coutumiers du XIIIe siècle ont-ils connu la coutume?” in La coutume au village dans l’Europe médiévale et moderne, eds. M. Mousnier, J. Poumarède, 103–119. Toulouse: PUM.

  26. 26.

    Krynen. Jacques. 1998. “Voluntas domini Regis in suo regno facit jus. Le roi de France et la coutume”, in El Dret Comú i Catalunya, eds. A. O. Ferreiros. Barcelona: Assoc. Catalana d’Historia del Dret, 58–89.

  27. 27.

    Gouron, André.1982. “Législateur et droit privé dans la France médiévale”, Diritto e potere nella storia europea. Atti in onore di Bruno Paradisi, Firenze: Olschki, 211–230.

  28. 28.

    Rigaudière, Albert. 1996. “La royauté, le Parlement et le droit écrit aux alentours des années 1300”, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, vol. 140, 885–908.

  29. 29.

    Hilaire, Jean. 2011. La construction de l’État de droit dans les archives judiciaires de la Cour de France au XIII e siècle. Paris: Dalloz about the central role of the royal Court of justice (the Parlement) for the recognition of customary law and the construction of a kind of “rule of Law”.

  30. 30.

    Harding (as n. 8) 197 about the legislative provisions of Henry II: “it was thus as the tried and tested customs of peoples that the first traditional systems of law were justified against Roman law and canonical legislation, though in fact they rested largely on the will and authority of kings and imported many elements of the ‘learned laws’”.

  31. 31.

    Brewer (as n. 15) 3–4.

  32. 32.

    Berman (as n. 9) 115: “Thus the statement that the Church was the first modern Western State must be qualified” though the distinction between Church State and secular States.

  33. 33.

    Gouron, André and Rigaudière, Albert (eds.).1988. Renaissance du pouvoir législatif et genèse de l’État. Montpellier: Publications de la Société d’Histoire du droit écrit.

  34. 34.

    Tomás y Valiente, Francisco. 1987. Manual de Historia del Derecho Español. Madrid: Tecnos 237–245.

  35. 35.

    Petit-Renaud, Sophie. 2001. “Faire Loy” au Royaume de France, de Philippe VI à Charles V (1328–1380). Paris: de Boccard, 13 and 373 (about the process of registration through the Parliament, the Higher Court of justice in Paris, which concerned a very small number of normative texts, around 3 per year, during the 14th century).

  36. 36.

    Martin, Frédéric F. 2009. Justice et législation sous le règne de Louis XI. La norme juridique royale à la veille des Temps modernes. Paris: Fondation Varenne, LGDJ, 20–21, 246–248, 282, 353. The number of the acts submitted to registration through the Parliament has diminished during the reigns of Louis XI’s successors, Charles VIII and Louis XII.

  37. 37.

    Isambert, Decrusy, Armet (eds.). 1828. Recueil des anciennes lois françaises. Paris, vol. XII; Tessier, Georges. 1967. “Les ordonnances de François Ier”, Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes 125, 202–208 about a more comprehensive table.

  38. 38.

    Isambert (n 37), vol. XIII. The idea of “reformation” of the royal institutions, supposing that the legislative texts are rather devoted to renew the old rules than to innovate, was central during the 16th century in France: Rousselet-Pimont, Anne. 2005. Le chancelier et la loi au XVI e siècle. Paris: Perrin, 193.

  39. 39.

    Hoppit, Julian. 1996. Patterns of Parliamentary Legislation 1660–1800, The Historical Journal, 39, 1, 109–131.

  40. 40.

    Deveraux, Simon. 2005. The promulgation of the statutes in late Hanoverian Britain. In The British and their Laws in the eighteenth century, ed. David Lemmings. 86. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.

  41. 41.

    Lieberman, David. 1999. Codification, Consolidation, and Parliamentary Statute. In Rethinking Leviathan. The Eighteenth-Century State in Britain and Germany, eds. John Brewer, Eckhart Hellmuth, 371–377. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  42. 42.

    As n. 37, vol. XVII to vol. XXVII for the reigns of Louis the fourteenth, Louis the fifteenth and Louis the sixteenth.

  43. 43.

    Antoine, Michel. 1970. Le Conseil du roi sous le règne de Louis XV, Genève: Droz, 361–365.

  44. 44.

    The number of the statutes laws approved by the Cortes decreased from 157 under Philip II to 19 under Philipp III and 6 under Philipp IV: Pérez Martin, Antonio and Scholz, Johannes Michael. 1978. Legislación y jurisprudencie en la España del antiguo Régimen, Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 14.

  45. 45.

    Tomás y Valiente (N 34), 372–377.

  46. 46.

    Carbera Bosch, Maria, Isabel. 1993. El Consejo Real de Castilla, Madrid: CSIC, 213.

  47. 47.

    This compilation contains between 20 and 60 legislative acts (most of them are Autos Acordados) each year in the second half of the 18th century.

  48. 48.

    Hattenanauer, Hans. 1994. Europäische Rechtsgeschichte, Heidelberg: C. F. Müller, 411–412.

  49. 49.

    Schulze, Reiner. 1978. Die Polizeigesetzgebung zur Wirtschafts- und Arbeitsordnung der Mark Brandenburg in der frühen Neuzeit. Aalen: Scientia, 92, 113, 131.

  50. 50.

    Ogris, Werner. 1997. The Habsburg Monarchy in the Eighteenth Century: the Birth of the Modern Centralized State. In Legislation and Justice, ed. Antonio Padoa-Schioppa, 329–333. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  51. 51.

    Vann, James, Allen. 1984. The Making of a State. Württemberg 1593–1793. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 83.

  52. 52.

    With the symptomatic development of private collections of statutory laws: Tarello, Giovanni. 1976. Storia della cultura giuridica moderna. Bologna: il Mulino, 193.

  53. 53.

    Voogd, Christophe de. 1992. Histoire des Pays-Bas. Paris: Hatier, 85.

  54. 54.

    Israel, Jonathan. 1995.The Dutch Republic: its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 278–280.

  55. 55.

    Prak, Maarten. 2005. The Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century: the Golden Age. Trans. D. Webb. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 164.

  56. 56.

    Price, J. L. 1998. The Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 64.

  57. 57.

    Chorus, Jeroen, Gerver, Piet-Hein and Hondius, Edward. 2006. Introduction to Dutch Law. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International, 6.

  58. 58.

    Vessels, Johannes Wilhelmus. 2005. History of Roman Dutch Law. Clark: The Lawbook Exchange, 229.

  59. 59.

    Lokin, Jan H. A., Brandsma, Frits and Jansen, Corio. 2003. Roman-Frisian Law of the 17th and 18th centuries. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 21.

  60. 60.

    This book also contains quotations from the court instructions (for example rulings about the number of advocates or procurators, p. 19, about appeals p. 49–70), decisions of the States of Holland about beer production (p. 123–126), articles of the 1570 criminal ordinance (which was kept after the independence), rules about Jews (not admitted as advocates, p. 427) or loans. The statutes referred in the 786 pages are, without doubt, less numerous that the ones of the contemporary great monarchies, but they demonstrate the legislative activity of the States of Holland.

  61. 61.

    Price, J. L. 1994. Holland and the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: the Politics of Particularism. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  62. 62.

    Weinbaum, Martin. 1943. British Borough Charters 1307–1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, XII-XIII.

  63. 63.

    Bilder, Mary Sarah. 2006. The Corporate Origins of Judicial Review. The Yale Law Journal 116: 502, at 522–532.

  64. 64.

    Payen, Philippe. 1999. La physiologie de l’arrêt de règlement du Parlement de Paris au XVIII e siècle, Paris: PUF, 489–490.

  65. 65.

    Leganrd-Baumier, Béatrice. 2008. La mise en place de la réforme de L’Averdy à Tours (1764–1771). Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l’Ouest 107: 87–100.

  66. 66.

    Gallinato, Bernard. 1992. Les corporations de Bordeaux à la fin de l’Ancien Régime. Vie et mort d’un mode d’organisation du travail. Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 143, 191 and 211.

  67. 67.

    Sonenscher, Michael. 1989. Work and Wages. Natural Law, Politics and the Eighteenth Century French Trades, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 288–291.

  68. 68.

    Bell, David A. 1994. Lawyers and Citizens. The Making of a Political Elite in Old Regime France. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 55–58.

  69. 69.

    Lemmings, David. 2000. Professors of the Law. Barristers and English Legal Culture in the Eighteenth Century, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 125, 218, 271.

  70. 70.

    Brundage, James A. 2008. The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  71. 71.

    Pelorson, Jean-Marc. 1980. Les Letrados. Juristes castillans sous Philippe III. Poitiers: Université de Poitiers, 106 considers that the group of lawyers with an University degree was more than 10,000 in Spain at the beginning of the 17th century. Most of them had a degree in canon law and about a thousand served as ecclesiastical judges.

  72. 72.

    Unfortunately, we have no esteemed number of lawyers in the 17th and 18th centuries Netherlands.

  73. 73.

    Lemmings, David. 1990. Gentlemen and Barristers. The Inns of Court and the English Bar 1680–1730. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 6.

  74. 74.

    Without a general statutory law concerning the whole of France (the more developed text about advocates is a 1535 ordinance concerning the Parlement of Provence), François I had reinforced the regulations applicable to professional lawyers and provoked a clearer distinction between advocates and procurators (despite some cases where the two professions were carried out simultaneously by the same person).

  75. 75.

    Lemmings N 67, 63.

  76. 76.

    Prest, Wilfrid R. 1997. Assistance in the Resolution of Conflict: Professors of the Law in England from the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century. In Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin, L’assistance dans la resolution des conflits, 259. Bruxelles: de Boeck.

  77. 77.

    The 1739 creation of the Society of Gentleman Practisers can be seen as a (rather weak) attempt by some attorneys in London to organize a selective “club” (comprising less than 200 members, whereas there were 4,000 attorneys and solicitors in the whole England): Birks, Michael. 1960. Gentlemen of the Law. London: Stevens & Sons, 145.

  78. 78.

    Lemmings n. 65, 319–322.

  79. 79.

    Lieberman, David. 2002. The Province of Legislation determined. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 88–89

  80. 80.

    Royer, Jean-Pierre, 1979. La société judiciaire depuis le XVIII e siècle. Paris: PUF; Krynen, n. 11, 254–258 concerning the opposition between the Parlements and the Conseil du Roi.

  81. 81.

    Antoine, n. 43.

  82. 82.

    Karpik, Lucien. 1995. Les avocats. Entre l’État, le public et le marché XIII e – XX e siècles. Paris: Gallimard.

  83. 83.

    Leuwers, Hervé. 2006. L’invention du barreau français 1660–1830. Paris: éd. de l’EHESS.

  84. 84.

    Luig, Klaus. 1972. The Institutes of national law in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Juridical Review 17: 193–226 with examples taken in France, Germany, Denmark, Scotland. The question of the role of this “institutional literature” as a means to “nationalize” the legal field has been discussed by Cairns, John W. 1984. Blackstone: an English institutist: legal literature and the rise of the nation state. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 4: 318–360.

  85. 85.

    Tomás y Valiente (n. 45), 385–390.

  86. 86.

    Hespanha, António Manuel. 1999. Introduzione alla storia del diritto europeo. Bologna: il Mulino,195.

  87. 87.

    Coing , Helmut (Hg.). 1997. Handbuch der Quellen und Literatur der neueren europäischen Privatrechtsgeschichte. München: Beck, vol. II/1 at 64.

  88. 88.

    Grahl, Christian. 1994. Die Abschaffung der Advokatur unter Friedrich dem Grossen. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 29, 135–136.

  89. 89.

    Siegrist, Hannes. 1996. Advokat, Bürger und Staat. Sozialgeschichte der Rechtsanwälte in Deutschland, Italien und der Schweiz (18–20 Jh.). Frankfurt am Main, Klostermann, vol. I, 77.

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  1. Department of Social Sciences, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France

    Jean-Louis Halpérin

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Halpérin, JL. (2014). What is Revolutionary in the Legal Construction of Modern States?. In: Five Legal Revolutions Since the 17th Century. Studies in the History of Law and Justice, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05888-7_1

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