Abstract
This chapter discusses industry regulation of the dual aspects of food quality (i.e. product conformance and reliability) in each element of the bread-VC. Product conformance standards and test procedures are nearly identical (based on bread variety) for bakers in France and the U.S. Bakers are usually required by local laws to utilize HACCP and bakers, in turn, generally require millers/grain processors who supply to them to do the same. But across the VC, adoption of GMPs/GAPs/GHPs is voluntary. In general, millers/grain processors utilize the same basic procedures for processing grain, however variety exists regarding required test results with the final product being a combination of baker demands and available wheat characteristics. This is particularly true in France where the grain processors compete with one another to attract bakers based on quality characteristics that are customized (often at no additional cost) for the baker.
Wheat growers’ practices appear similar in both countries, but a more careful examination shows how very differently the growers in each country manage processes and benchmarks. For example, farmers in both countries use approximately 50 % saved seeds from the previous crop. But French growers utilize scientific assessments to verify that genetic traits have not been lost and that seeds are clean and healthy. U.S. farmers tend to clean the seeds themselves, although independent agencies do offer seed-cleaning services. Although wheat-growing practices were examined in open production in both countries, in the U.S. system of open production and commingling, there is little benefit in checking/preserving genetic traits.
Some of the more important differences in management approach in the two countries relate to prevention of adverse health characteristics, particularly changes in protein qualities that contribute to increased GI/GL levels. Wheat with ‘good protein’ qualities is appreciated by millers/bakers in both countries. I.e. good protein qualities improve both bread conformance and reliability; growers in France are encouraged throughout the VC to produce highest possible quality. In the U.S., even though millers and bakers also value good protein qualities, USDA contends that protein quality characteristics represent a commercial issue between buyer and seller and not suitable as a requirement for the U.S. grain grading standard—in contrast to France having introduced intrinsic characteristics to its grain grading system in 1998. USDA also contends that farm-to-fork food safety means starting at the farm gate, thereby leaving responsibility for food safety to a 1–3 min organoleptic test of incoming loads of wheat at the elevator. Meanwhile, the Commerce Department contends that wheat growing is an ‘extractive activity’ like oil production; that, in a sense, makes it somehow understandable that food safety might begin with the miller and move downstream, thereby excluding the primary producer.
It’s possible to attribute the dramatic differences in attitude of primary producers toward food safety in France and the U.S. as ‘over concern’ on the part of the French and ‘no real problem’ in the U.S. But as a comparison of foodborne disease (FBD) incidence rates in France and the U.S. showed (Sect. 2.4.2), the U.S. rate is more than six times greater than that of France. The U.S. rate is also one of the highest in the OECD; thus, it appears that food quality issues in the U.S. are probably not confined to wheat.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
Sometimes referred to as trace elements.
- 2.
“INCO terms are internationally agreed conditions and terminology for export contracts, letters of credit and other internationally negotiable documents” (International Chamber of Commerce 2010).
- 3.
“Ideally, protein content of soft wheats for French breads are approximately 9.5 % ± 0.7 %.” N.B. Taken from a personal communication with S. Cauvain in 2007.
- 4.
‘Picking’ good prices refers to choosing, or guessing, a price at planting time of the likely price of the crop on the commodities exchange at harvest time.
- 5.
Chairholder of the Blasingame Chair of Excellence in Agricultural Policy and Director of the Agricultural Policy Analysis Center at the University of Tennessee.
References
ARVALIS. (2000). Institut du végétal and IRTAC—Institut de Recherches Technologiques Agro-Alimentaires des Céréales. (1rè édition) Charte de Production du Blé Tendre. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2000). Institut du végétal and ONIGC. 2000. See ARVALIS and IRTAC 2000.
ARVALIS. (2003). Institut du végétal and ONIC. Qualité des blés français: Récolte 2005. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2004). Institut du végétal. (2è édition) Charte de Production du Blé Tendre. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2004). Institut du végétal and ONIC. Qualité des blés français: Récolte 2005. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2005). Institut du végétal and ONIC. Qualité des blés français: Récolte 2005. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2006). Institut du végétal and ONIC. Qualité des blés français: Récolte 2006. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2007). Institut du végétal and ONIC. Qualité des blés français: Récolte 2007. Paris.
ARVALIS. (2007). Institut du végétal and ONIGC. 2007. Quality of French Wheats 2007 Harvest. p 4. Paris.
Bennett R., Chung O., Herrman T. (2002). Milling & bread-baking qualities of hard winter wheat varieties 2002 Kansas update, Kansas State University. Available from World Wide Web at www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/grsci2/MF1077.pdf.
Berruto, R., Maier, D. (1999). Using extend to analyze the grain receiving operation of a commercial elevator. ASAE Paper No. 99-6085. St. Joseph, Michigan. ASAE.
Berruto, R., & Maier, D. (2001). Analyzing the receiving operation of different grain types in a single-pit country elevator. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 44(3), 631–638. and Purdue University Agricultural Research Programs, Manuscript No. 16209. West Lafayette, Indiana. Purdue University.
Bovard, J. (2002). BUSH’S farm Fiasco. August 2002. Freedom Daily. The future of freedom foundation. Washington, DC. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0208d.asp. Accessed May 6 2011.
Catterall, P. (1998). Flour milling. In: Technology of breadmaking. 1st Ed (pp. 296–329) Blackie Academic & Professional.
Catterall, P., Cauvain, S. (2007). Flour milling. In: Technology of breadmaking. 2nd Ed (pp. 333–370) Heidelberg: Springer.
Cauvain, S. (2007). Breadmaking processes. In: Technology of breadmaking. 2nd Ed (pp. 21–50) Heidelberg: Springer.
Cauvain, S., Chamberlain, N., Collins, T., Davis, J. (1983). The distribution of dietary fibre and baking quality of mill fractions of CBP bread flour. FMBRA Report No. 105, July 1983, CCFRA, Chipping Campden, UK.
Cauvain, S., Davies, J., Fearn, T. (1985). Flour characteristics and fungal alpha-amylase in the Chorleywood Bread Process, FMBRA Report No. 121, March 1985, CCFRA, Chipping Campden, UK.
Cauvain, S., & Young, L. (Eds.). (1998). Technology of breadmaking. London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
EC. (2003). Guidelines for the development of national strategies and best practices to ensure the co-existence of genetically modified crops with conventional organic farming. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities.
FAO/Peña, R. (2000). Wheat for bread and other foods. Rome. FAO. Also available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y4011E/y4011e00.htm#Contents. Please note: This document is now replaced by a book of the same title, found at the same URL. Accessed Sept 9, 2013 but identified with ISBN 9251048096 published in 2002.
Faridi, H., & Faubion, J. (1995). Wheat usage in North America. In H. Faridi & J. Faubion (Eds.), Wheat end uses around the world (pp. 1–41). St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
Federal Register. (2012). United States standards for wheat: A proposed rule by the grain inspection, packers and stockyards administration on April 11, 2012. Federal Register 04/11/2012 Issue. Office of the Federal Register. Washington, DC. Available via the World Wide Web at: https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2012/04/11 and via http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-04-11/pdf/2012-8663.pdf, Accessed Aug 20 2012.
Figoni, P. (2003). How baking works: Exploring the fundamentals of baking science. New York: Wiley.
Harwood, J., Leath, M., Heid, W. (1989). The U.S. milling and baking industries. Agricultural Economic Report No. 611. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
Herrman, T. 1999. Identity preservation: operational aspects of a value-enhanced marketing strategy. Proceedings of GEAPS Exchange ’99. Grain Elevator and Processing Society USA, 1999.
Herrman, T. (2002). White paper on traceability in the U.S. grain and plant protein feed ingredient industries. Manhattan, Kansas: Kansas State University, Department of Grain Science and Industry.
Herrman, T., Baker, S., & Fairchild, F. (2001). Characterization of receiving systems and operating performance of Kansas grain elevators during wheat harvest. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 17(1), 77–82.
Herrman, T., Bennett, R., Chung, O./Kansas State University (2002). Milling and bread-baking qualities of hard winter wheat varieties: 2002 Kansas update. MF-1077. Manhattan, Kansas: Kansas State University. See also McCluskey, P., Chung, O. and Herrman, T. 2001.
Herrman, T., & Reed, C. (2000). Wheat grading procedures. EP-98. Manhattan, Kansas: K-State Research and Extension, Kansas State University.
INRA. (2002). See INRA/Fardet, A., Leenhardt, F., Lioger, D. Scalbertand, A., Rémésy, C.
INRA/Fardet, A., Leenhardt, F., Lioger, D. Scalbertand, A. and Rémésy, C. (2002). Parameters controlling the glycaemic response to bread. Unité des Maladies Métaboliques et Micronutriment, INRA. Clermont-Ferrand and Theix, France
International Chamber of Commerce. (2010). Incoterms® 2010. ICC Publication No. 715, 2010 Edition. Paris: International Chamber of Commerce (ICC).
ITCF. (1999). See ITCF and ONIC 1999
ITCF and ONIC. (1999). Quality of wheats: French Harvest 1999. ITCF, ONIC, ANMF and GNIS. Paris.
Johnson, D., & Wilson, W. (1995). Evaluation of price/dockage strategies for U.S. wheat exporters. Review of Agricultural Economics, 17(2), 147–158.
Kansas State University (KSU)/K-State Research & Extension. (1997). Wheat production handbook. CF-529. Manhattan, Kansas: K-State Research & Extension, Kansas State University.
Kastens, T., & Dhuyvetter, K. (2005). Management factors: what is important, prices, yields, costs, or technology adoption? (updated August 2005 – data from 1995-2004 in Nivens and Kastens 1999). Manhattan, Kansas: Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State University.
Kastens, T., Dhuyvetter, K., & Nivens, H. (2001). Management factors: what is important, prices, yields, costs, or technology adoption? (updated November 2001 – data from 1990-1999 in Nivens and Kastens 1999). Manhattan, Kansas: Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State University.
Kennett, J., Fulton, M., Molder, P., Brooks, H. (1998). Supply chain management: The case of a UK baker preserving the identity of Canadian milling wheat. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 3(3), 157–166. Bingley, U.K. Emerald.
Lallemand, Inc. (1997). Staling causes and effects. Lallemand baking update: bread staling (Vol. 1). Montreal: Lallemand, Inc.
Legan, J. (1993). Moulds spoilage of bread: the problem and some solutions. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation Society, 32, 33–53.
McCluskey, P., Chung, O., & Herrman, T. (2001). Milling & bread-baking qualities of hard winter wheat varieties 2001 Kansas update. MF-1077. Manhattan KS: Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station. See also Herrman, T. et al. /Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station. 2002.
Mercier, S. (1993). The role of quality in wheat import decision-making. AER 670, USDA/Economic Research Service. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
NAMA. (2006). Consumer’s information; from wheat to flour. Available via the World Wide Web at: http://www.namamillers.org/ci_Wheat-Flour.html, Accessed Aug 20 2012.
NAMA 2011. Wheat Standards. NAMA position statement concerning Open comments solicited by USDA/GIPSA regarding U.S. Wheat Grading System. 3 March 2011 by Jim Bair, Vice President of NAMA. http://www.namamillers.org
NDSU, Sologuk, S., Sorenson, B. (2004). Understanding wheat quality tests. Northern Crops Institute, North Dakota State University. Fargo, ND. Available via the World Wide Web at: http://www.northern-crops.com/technical/fallingnumber.htm. Accessed Aug 20 2012.
Nivens, H. and Kastens, T. 1999. Payoffs to Farm Management: How Important Is Grain Marketing? Proceedings of the NCR-134 Conference on Applied Commodity Price Analysis, Forecasting, and Market Risk Management. Chicago, IL. Also available at: http://www.farmdoc.uiuc.edu/nccc134; and Nivens, H., Kastens, T. and Dhuyvetter, K. 1999. Payoffs to Farm Management: How Important is Grain Marketing? Manhattan, Kansas. Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State University.
Oklahoma State University (OSU), Regnier, S., Holcomb, R., Rayas-Duarte, P. (2004). Relating wheat quality to end-product quality. FAPC-129. Stillwater, Oklahoma. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources.
ONIC and ITCF (1999). See ITCF and ONIC 1999.
ONIGC. (2007). Les Echanges Commerciaux: Blé. Paris: Office National Interprofessional des Grandes Cultures.
OTA. (1989). See United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment (OTA).
Pateras, I. (2007). Bread spoilage and staling. In: Technology of breadmaking. 2nd Ed (pp. 275–298) Heidelberg: Springer.
Qarooni, J. (1996). Wheat characteristics for flat breads: Hard or soft, white or red? Cereal Foods World, 41, 391–395.
Singh, R., & Kulshrestha, V. (1996). Wheat. In fifty years of crop science research in India (pp. 219–249). New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Sosland, J. (2012). NAMA decries lack of action on wheat standards; BakingBusiness.com. . Available from World Wide Web: http://www.bakingbusiness.com/News/News%20Home/Regulatory/2012/4/NAMA%20decries%20lack%20of%20action%20on%20wheat%20standards.aspx. Accessed Apr 12 2012.
Taylor, M., Brester, G., & Boland, M. (2005). Hard white wheat and gold medal flour: General mills’ contracting program. Review of Agricultural Economics, 27(2005), 117–129.
Titus, M., & Dooley, F. (1996). Supply chain management: Assessing costs and linkages in the wheat value chain upper great plains transportation institute and department of agricultural economics. Fargo, North Dakota: North Dakota State University.
U.S. National Agricultural Statistics Service. (2007). Grain stocks 2007. Available from the World Wide Web at: http://usda01.library.cornell.edu/usda/nass/GraiStoc//2000s/2007/GraiStoc-09-28-2007.pdf. Accessed Feb 17 2014.
United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). (1989). Grain quality in international trade: A comparison of major U.S. Competitors. F-402. Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment.
University of Minnesota. (2004). Sprout damaged wheat, crop insurance, and quality concerns; by Sorenson, B. and Weirsma, J. Minnesota Crop News. September 14, 2004. UM Extension. Available via the World Wide Web at: http://www.extension.umn.edu/cropEnews/2004/04MNCN31.htm. Accessed Aug 20 2012.
Uri, N., & Hyberg, B. (1996). The market valuation of wheat quality characteristics. Journal of Economic Studies, 23(3), 4–63.
USDA/ERS. (2002). U.S. wheat supply. Available via the World Wide Web at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/wheat/background.aspx#supply
USDA/ERS. (2007). Elbehri, A. The Changing Face of the U.S. Grain System: Differentiation and Identity Preservation Trends, ERR-35. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Econ. Res. Serv. Feb. 2007. Washington, DC.
USDA/GIPSA. (2007). Grain inspection, packers and stockyards administration federal grain inspection service. Table 4. In Summary of export soft red winter wheat quality, factor averages by grade, 2004-2006 (2006 U.S. Grain exports: quality report, p. 15). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Vantal, A. (2001). Le pain. Paris: Hachette, Éditions du Chêne.
Wilson, W. (1995). Structural changes and strategies in the North American flour milling industry. Agribusiness, 11(5), 431–439. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Wilson, W., & Dahl, B. (1999a). Quality uncertainty in international grain markets: Analytical and competitive issues. Review of Agricultural Economics, 21(1), 209–224.
Wilson, W., Dahl, B. (1999). Transnational grain firms: Evolution and strategies in North America. Agricultural Economics Report No. 412. Fargo, North Dakota. Department of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Experiment Station, North Dakota State University.
Wilson, W., & Dahl, B. (2005). Railcar auctions for grain shipments: A strategic analysis. Journal of Agricultural & Food Industrial Organization, 3(2), 1–29. Also available: http://www.bepress.com/jafio/vol3/iss2/art3.
Wilson, W., Henry, X. and Dahl, B. (2005). Costs and risks of conforming to EU traceability requirements: The case of Hard Red Spring wheat. Fargo, North Dakota. Agribusiness and Applied Economics Report No. 564, Department of Agribusiness and Applied Economics, North Dakota State University.
Wilson, W., Janzen, E., Dahl, B. (2003). Issues in development and adoption of genetically modified (GM) wheats. Agribusiness & Applied Economics Report 23497, North Dakota State University, Department of Agribusiness and Applied Economics.
Wisner, R. (2003). Market risks of genetically modified wheat: The potential short-term impacts of GMO spring wheat introduction on U.S. wheat export markets and prices. October 30, 2003. Department of Economics, Iowa State University.
Wrigley, C. (1991). Improved tests for cereal-grain quality based on better understanding of composition-quality relationships. In D. J. Martin & C. W. Wrigley (Eds.), Cereals international (pp. 117–120). North Melbourne, VIC: Royal Australian Chemical Institute.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hill, V. (2014). Industry Regulation of Quality in Bread, Flour and Wheat in France and the U.S.. In: A Kaizen Approach to Food Safety. Contributions to Management Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04250-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04250-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-04249-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-04250-3
eBook Packages: Business and EconomicsBusiness and Management (R0)