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From the Design to the Construction of a Science, Technology and Innovation Policy in El Salvador

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Science, Technology and Innovation Policies for Development

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Abstract

This chapter is devoted to revise the public policy efforts that have taken place in El Salvador in recent years, which is aimed at the promotion of science, technology, and innovation (STI) as well as the generation of a propitious environment for these activities. Firstly, we review the general situation of the country, the social and economic conditions, and the current STI state. Secondly, the underlying rationale of science, technology, and innovation policy is analyzed within the institutional framework of the country. Additionally, this section includes a detailed description of the institutions and their gradual evolution to better respond to the needs for strengthening the STI system. Thirdly, we examine the main STI policy instruments that have been implemented in El Salvador. Finally, the last section focuses on the conclusions of the study, emphasizing the detected strengths and weaknesses of the STI policy system, the learning process that has enriched this system as well as the positive aspects concerning institutional redesign and the proposal of new STI policies.

This work is based on great measure on parts of the UNCTAD/ECLAC (2011a) report; however, recently we have had the opportunity to carry out extensive additional fieldwork, which has allowed us to update the information as much as possible, up to the end of 2012.

We wish to express our appreciation to countless officials from government organisms, businessmen, representatives of the academic sector, and trade associations among others, who granted us interviews for the preparation of this chapter. Special mention is given, for their support in the fieldwork, to Dr. Erlinda Hándal Vega, Deputy Minister of Science and Technology, and Mr. Yax Canossa Humberstone, Director of Technological Development and Innovation. With regard to logistics support, we mention Verónica López of the DIDT. We are also thankful to Marta Pérez Cusó, coordinator of the UNCTAD exam, as well as Cristina Navarrete Moreno, Ana Marta Najarro, and Ignacio del Busto Mellado, officials of the World Bank.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Albeit orthodox, since it is based on the systems' school of thought, specifically the neurocybernetic view and the viable systems model, see Beer (1972, 1979, 1984).

  2. 2.

    Andersen (1994).

  3. 3.

    See Freeman (1987), Lundvall (1992), Nelson (1993).

  4. 4.

    It is important to emphasize that the concept of institutions refers to the “rules of the game” in the context of nations, in the form of legislation, regulations, uses, customs, etc., and should not be confused with organizations.

  5. 5.

    The classical reference in this sense is Edquist (1997); see also McKelvey (1991). In addition, the works of original proponents of this concept usually make reference to the differences between the various approaches (Freeman 1995, 2002; Lundvall et al. 2002; Nelson and Nelson 2002).

  6. 6.

    Dalum et al. (1992).

  7. 7.

    OECD (1994, 1999, 2002), Edquist et al. (1998), Soete and STRATA-ETAN Expert Group (2002).

  8. 8.

    In a process that goes from perception to analogy and then to isomorphism (Beer 1984).

  9. 9.

    General Systems Theory (von Bertalanffy 1968).

  10. 10.

    This is reflected mainly in the debate regarding the appropriate limitations to innovation system analysis.

  11. 11.

    Ver Beer (1972, 1979, 1984).

  12. 12.

    For more details on this approach, see Lopez-Martinez (2010) and his application to the UNCTAD/ECLAC STI Policy Reviews (2011a, b).

  13. 13.

    For further details, see UNDP (2010), UNCTAD (2010).

  14. 14.

    In 2009, family remittances, in spite of being affected by the economic crisis, reached 3,465 million dollars and represented 16.4 % of the GDP.

  15. 15.

    An IMF study shows that 80 % of remittances are destined to consumption and only 15 % are destined to health and education expenses and 5 % to investment and savings (Cáceres and Saca 2006).

  16. 16.

    With the exception of Nicaragua, which invests less in absolute terms.

  17. 17.

    Based on data from the Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador.

  18. 18.

    For further details, see UNCTAD (2010).

  19. 19.

    This might not be the best indicator, but it offers an adequate approximation regarding the lack of more precise information.

  20. 20.

    Considering all registered patents, where one of the inventors resides in El Salvador (not necessarily implying that they have Salvadoran nationality).

  21. 21.

    Corresponding to the aggregate patterns for patenting in Central America and some Latin American economies, from 2000 to 2008. The RICYT databases are prepared with information provided by the organisms in charge of the science and technology statistics for each country. A certain degree of reserve must be maintained in these comparisons, because this information is often incomplete.

  22. 22.

    ECLAC (2010).

  23. 23.

    This budget does not include two priority programs established in the 2010–2014 Quinquennial Development Plan.

  24. 24.

    Similarly, fieldwork revealed positive and negative opinions regarding some universities, technological institutes, and training organisms.

  25. 25.

    WEF (2011).

  26. 26.

    See Pacto para el Crecimiento: El Salvador, Análisis de Restricciones. Equipo Técnico Conjunto USG-GOES 7/19/2011, at http://photos.state.gov/libraries/elsavador/92891/PFG/ES%20Constraints_Analysis_Espa__ol.pdf retrieved in November 2012.

  27. 27.

    The search period dates from 1941, although there are only three publications prior to 1972, the year in which they increase in number and systematic approach strengthens.

  28. 28.

    See the UNCTAD/ECLAC (2011a) report, p. 48, for more detailed information on the main STI policy instruments.

  29. 29.

    See UNCTAD/ECLAC (2011a), p. 58.

  30. 30.

    It is important to mention that since 2009, the new administration began an organizational restructuring which had a significant impact on the governance of the STI policy system.

  31. 31.

    The only research center in the country apart from higher education institutions.

  32. 32.

    National Science and Technology Council Law, Legal Decree Nº 287, Official Gazette, August 10, 1992 [Ley del Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Decreto Legislativo Nº 287, Diario Oficial, 10 de agosto de 1992].

  33. 33.

    See Sect. 3.2.4.

  34. 34.

    Not necessarily STI policy instruments.

  35. 35.

    Also with a more realistic time horizon, until 2024, that will receive two future reviews.

  36. 36.

    See Sect. 4.4.1.

  37. 37.

    Prepared with support from the scientific community of El Salvador.

  38. 38.

    The priorities in research, development, and innovation were identified by raising information regarding the activities carried out and the potential of the research centers or units of El Salvador.

  39. 39.

    By the year 2024, the following is generally proposed: tripling the number of export companies, increasing the number of destinations by 25 %, tripling income from exports, and increasing the number of exported products by 25 %.

  40. 40.

    STP/MINEC/MAG/BCR/ASI (2011).

  41. 41.

    STP/MINEC/MINED (2012).

  42. 42.

    Source http://www.innovacion.gob.sv/index.php/linknoticias/406-el-salvador-mejorara-sus-capacidades-de-innovacion-y-productividad-con-un-prestamo-de-us30-millones-del-bid-.html, retrieved in November, 2012.

  43. 43.

    The LEO and the constitution of the CEN were expected to be approved toward the end of 2012.

  44. 44.

    See Sect. 4.1.3.

  45. 45.

    The creation of the observatory is also contemplated in the National Innovation, Science, and Technology Policy mentioned in the previous section.

  46. 46.

    See Foot note 36.

  47. 47.

    However, it is already being analyzed by the legislative branch. The project to which we refer below dates back to March 2011.

  48. 48.

    Law of Production Promotion, Decree N° 598, January 31, 2011.

  49. 49.

    Law of Establishment of the Salvadoran Quality System, Decree N° 790, Official Gazette, August 26th 2011.

  50. 50.

    Law for industrial Zones and Legislative Commercial decree N° 405, Official Diary, September 1998 (with reforms in May 2009).

  51. 51.

    Law for Investments, Legislative decree N° 732 Official Diary November 11, 1999 (with reforms in February and March 2000).

  52. 52.

    Law for International Services, Legislative decree N° 431, Official Diary, October 25, 2007.

  53. 53.

    National Science Researcher Records of the El Salvador Researcher Network REDISAL, www.redisal.org.sv, information retrieved in September, 2010.

  54. 54.

    See Sect. 4.4.

  55. 55.

    Voluntary academic quality certification for higher education institutions; eight universities have this certification.

  56. 56.

    Source http://www.mined.gob.sv/index.php/noticias/1-institucional/4263-seminario-sobre-investigacion-y-presentacion-de-proyectos-fies-.html, information dated December 2009, retrieved in September, 2010.

  57. 57.

    FONDEPRO (2012).

  58. 58.

    These instruments all evidently form part of the environmental conditions.

  59. 59.

    We must not forget that the demand for intellectual property services is low in El Salvador.

  60. 60.

    World Bank (2012).

  61. 61.

    In March 2010, the BH had a total of assets and contingencies of 431 million dollars, BH (2010).

  62. 62.

    During 2009, the total amount of credit disbursed by the BFA rose to 81 million dollars, BFA (2009).

  63. 63.

    Result of the transformation from the Multi-sectorial Investment Bank (BMI) concretized in early 2012.

  64. 64.

    Source Interview with Mr. Yax Canossa Humberstonem, Director of Innovation and Technological Development, carried out in June 2012, within the framework of technical assistance of the World Bank to strengthen institutional capacities for strategic planning of the science, technology, and innovation system in El Salvador.

  65. 65.

    See Sect. 4.5.2

  66. 66.

    And there is no reference or knowledge of this.

  67. 67.

    A recent work report (MINED 2010a) reports the creation of the El Salvador Scientific Research Center and the National Social Sciences Research Center, as well as research projects carried out.

  68. 68.

    The "Research Centers" are in fact virtual, entirely consisting of academic personnel from the University of El Salvador, and in these, no formal evaluation processes are managed for the selection and control of the research projects which will be carried out. Source: Interview with members of the centers, carried out in February 2012, within the framework of technical assistance of the World Bank to strengthen institutional capacities for strategic planning of the Science, Technology, and Innovation system in El Salvador.

  69. 69.

    Mix of different economic reference frameworks that are not always compatible.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Systems Engineering Coordination, Institute of Engineering, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Maremoto 16–203, Jardines del Pedregal, Álvaro Obregón, 01900, Mexico, DF, Mexico

    Roberto E. López-Martínez

  2. Latin American and Caribbean Institute for Economic and Social Planning (ILPES), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Santiago, Chile

    René Hernández

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  1. Roberto E. López-Martínez
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  2. René Hernández
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Correspondence to Roberto E. López-Martínez .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Washington, District of Columbia, USA

    Gustavo Crespi

  2. Mexico City, Mexico

    Gabriela Dutrénit

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López-Martínez, R.E., Hernández, R. (2014). From the Design to the Construction of a Science, Technology and Innovation Policy in El Salvador. In: Crespi, G., Dutrénit, G. (eds) Science, Technology and Innovation Policies for Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04108-7_8

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