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Handbook of LGBT Elders pp 135–158Cite as

American Indian, Alaska Native, and Canadian Aboriginal Two-Spirit/LGBT Elderly

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Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the status of older two-spirit American Indian, Alaska Native, and Canadian Aboriginal two-spirit LGBT elders. Information is presented on traditional values and behaviors, two-spirit tradition and roles of elders in tribal communities, service utilization by two-spirit elders, systems of service delivery, and policy implications. The authors acknowledge the heterogeneity of these groups and do not presume uniformity across groups. Similarity, the term LGBT is used as the modern roughly equivalent of the Native term two-spirit. A brief background of two-spirit is included to provide the reader with an understanding of the history and significance of self-identity that is implicit in how two-spirit persons refer to themselves.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

    Debra A. Harley & Reginald J. Alston

Authors
  1. Debra A. Harley
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  2. Reginald J. Alston
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Debra A. Harley .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

    Debra A. Harley

  2. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

    Pamela B. Teaster

Appendices

Learning Exercises

Self-check Questions

  1. 1.

    To what extent do urban American Indians have rights as citizens to tribal government on reservations?

  2. 2.

    How is enculturation an empowering process for two-spirit persons?

  3. 3.

    How does historical trauma shape the health risk factors for Native Peoples?

  4. 4.

    Compared to the general population, what types of health issues are significantly higher among AIANs?

  5. 5.

    Among First Nations of Canada, which group has poorer health status? What health issues do they have?

Field-Based Experiential Assignments

  1. 1.

    Interview an AIAN or First Nations elderly LGBT persons to understand how he or she defines two-spirit identity.

  2. 2.

    Establish an interdisciplinary team of professionals and develop processes and procedures to work with two-spirit LGBT elders in urban areas and rural settings.

  3. 3.

    Construct an interdisciplinary, cross-cultural conference to address the psychological, social, health, housing, economic, education, and life-care plans of two-spirit LGBT elders. Be sure to: (a) purpose of the conference, (b) goals and objectives, (c) identify topics to be covered, (b) expert speakers, and (e) other relevant components.

Multiple Choice Questions

  1. 1.

    Which of the following is how American Indians analyze human sexuality?

    1. (a)

      Dichotomously and categorically

    2. (b)

      Continuum of human sexuality

    3. (c)

      Physical appearance

    4. (d)

      Biologically

  2. 2.

    How do American Indians define gender and gender status?

    1. (a)

      Majority and minority

    2. (b)

      Biological and ambiguous

    3. (c)

      Rite of passage

    4. (d)

      Biological and cultural

  3. 3.

    How are two-spirit persons viewed in First Nations’ culture?

    1. (a)

      Transsexuals

    2. (b)

      People who try to make themselves the opposite sex

    3. (c)

      Individuals who take on a gender that is different from both women and men

    4. (d)

      Individuals who take on one gender identity prior to puberty, then another gender to signify adulthood

  4. 4.

    Why do Aboriginal Peoples view Western medical practices as dehumanizing?

    1. (a)

      They separate older Aboriginal peoples from their communities

    2. (b)

      They involve individual-style decision making that can run contrary to traditional Aboriginal belief systems

    3. (c)

      They exclude Aboriginal worldview

    4. (d)

      All of the above

    5. (e)

      None of the Above

  5. 5.

    Which of the following is true of two-spirit persons on reservations who are asked to leave because of publicly disclosing their sexual orientation?

    1. (a)

      Lack of transportation make it harder for them to leave

    2. (b)

      They are able to blend in some ways

    3. (c)

      It is easier for them to integrate a positive, healthy identity

    4. (d)

      Service providers’ attitudes are more positive

  6. 6.

    Which of the following service provider is a higher rate of usage among rural Aboriginal elders than non-Aboriginal elders?

    1. (a)

      Physician

    2. (b)

      Specialist

    3. (c)

      Nurse

    4. (d)

      Eye doctor

  7. 7.

    Why is the diagnosis of mental health functioning of Native Peoples a concern with the way diagnostic criteria are defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual?

    1. (a)

      The language of the DSM is difficult to translate into many Native languages.

    2. (b)

      Native Peoples conceptualize mental health differently and express emotions that are inconsistent with DSM diagnostic criteria.

    3. (c)

      As a sovereign nation Native Peoples are not obligated to follow the same diagnostic criteria of the DSM.

    4. (d)

      The prevalence of indigenous people is not statically significant to meet DSM diagnostic criteria.

  8. 8.

    With the disclosure of one’s sexual identity in the American Indian community, who dictates the parameters regarding acceptable behavior?

    1. (a)

      Parents

    2. (b)

      Peer group

    3. (c)

      Elders

    4. (d)

      Tribal law

  9. 9.

    Which of the following is prohibited by federal policies for Aboriginal elderly in Canada?

    1. (a)

      Building of long-term care facilities on reservations

    2. (b)

      Staffing healthcare facilities with nurses in rural communities

    3. (c)

      Renting of subsidized housing

    4. (d)

      Providing healthcare services both on- and off-reservation

  10. 10.

    Where did the term two-spirit originate?

    1. (a)

      USA

    2. (b)

      Australia

    3. (c)

      England

    4. (d)

      Canada

Key

  • 1—b

  • 2—d

  • 3—c

  • 4—d

  • 5—a

  • 6—c

  • 7—b

  • 8—c

  • 9—a

  • 10—d

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Harley, D.A., Alston, R.J. (2016). American Indian, Alaska Native, and Canadian Aboriginal Two-Spirit/LGBT Elderly. In: Harley, D., Teaster, P. (eds) Handbook of LGBT Elders. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-03623-6_7

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