Abstract
This chapter pays close attention to the justification grounds and their legitimacy. First, it identifies a long list of public interest objectives that have been recognised by the Court of Justice under the headings ‘consumer protection’ and ‘maintenance of public order’ (addiction, crime, public morality).
The chapter then discusses the ambivalent relationship of the state towards gambling: it has an economic interest in the gambling business as well as in minimising gambling-related harm. In the early case law, the Court found it ‘not without relevance’ that games of chance could make a significant financial contribution to public interest purposes. By contrast, Advocates General and the EFTA Court rejected the logic that the goal could (partly) justify the means. Only in recent decisions, the Court has recognised a conflict of interest of charity operators and public authorities, similar to private operators.
Importantly, the chapter discusses in detail the public morality argument. It shows that, historically, the regulation of gambling was heavily influenced by moral beliefs. Christian religious leaders despised gambling as an idle and unproductive behaviour, and players were seen as morally deficient. Examples from the jurisprudence illustrate that the Court’s language as well seemed to be strongly influenced by a moral perspective.
The chapter argues, along a two-category model, that gambling in twenty-first century Europe does not constitute a core issue of morality. The legitimate concerns relate to potential detrimental side-effects but not to the activity as such. Instead, a scientific perspective is advocated and the need to base public policies on empirical evidence.
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- 1.
Chalmers, Davies, and Monti, European Union Law: Text and Materials, at 70–75.
- 2.
Cf. for this list and the cited cases, Swiss Institute of Comparative Law, Study of Gambling Services in the Internal Market of the European Union, Chap. 2, at 981–982.
- 3.
C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 31.
- 4.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 60; C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 30; C-6/01 Associação Nacional de Operadores de Máquinas Recreativas (Anomar) et alii v Estado português [2003] ECR I-8621, paras 62–63.
- 5.
C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, paras 30 and 35.
- 6.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 60; C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, paras 30 and 35.
- 7.
C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-6/01 Associação Nacional de Operadores de Máquinas Recreativas (Anomar) et alii v Estado português [2003] ECR I-8621, para. 73.
- 8.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 58; C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-6/01 Associação Nacional de Operadores de Máquinas Recreativas (Anomar) et alii v Estado português [2003] ECR I-8621, paras 62 and 73.
- 9.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 60.
- 10.
Ibid., para. 57.
- 11.
C-338/04, C-359/04 and C-360/04 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Massimiliano Placanica, Christian Palazzese, Angelo Sorricchio [2007] ECR I-1891, para. 54.
- 12.
Recently confirmed in C-64/08 Criminal Proceedings against Ernst Engelmann [2010] ECR I-8219, para. 22.
- 13.
C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 36; C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, paras 20, 22, 70; C-186/11 and C-209/11 (Joined Cases) Stanleybet International Ltd (C-186/11), William Hill Organization Ltd, William Hill Plc, and Sportingbet Plc (C-209/11) v Ypourgos Oikonomias kai Oikonomikon, Ypourgos Politismou, Intervener: Organismos Prognostikon Agonon Podosfairou AE (OPAP) [2013] nyr, paras 23 and 29.
- 14.
C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 36.
- 15.
Ibid., para. 43.
- 16.
C-470/11 Garkalns SIA v Rigas dome [2012] nyr, para. 48.
- 17.
Ibid., para. 40.
- 18.
C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, paras 20, 22, 70; C-64/08 Criminal Proceedings against Ernst Engelmann [2010] ECR I-8219, para. 22.
- 19.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 36; C-243/01 Criminal Proceedings against Piergiorgio Gambelli et alii [2003] ECR I-13031, para. 61.
- 20.
E-1/06 EFTA Surveillance Authority v Norway [2007] EFTA Court Report 8, paras 8 and 40.
- 21.
C-212/08 Zeturf Ltd v Premier ministre [2011] ECR I-5633, paras 51–53.
- 22.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 36; C-243/01 Criminal Proceedings against Piergiorgio Gambelli et alii [2003] ECR I-13031, para. 61.
- 23.
C-243/01 Criminal Proceedings against Piergiorgio Gambelli et alii [2003] ECR I-13031, para. 61; C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, para. 105; C-347/09 Criminal Proceedings against Jochen Dickinger and Franz Ömer [2011] ECR I-8185, paras 53–54.
- 24.
Ritaine, E.C., and Lein, E., “Les jeux de hasard dans l’Union européenne: Panorama de droit comparé et implications sur la libre circulation des services” in Annuaire Suisse de droit européen, Epiney, A., Egbuna-Joss, A., and Wyssling, M. (Eds.), Bern/Zurich: Staempfli Verlag/Schulthess Verlag, 2006, pp. 465–478, at 477.
- 25.
C-46/08 Carmen Media Group Ltd v Land Schleswig-Holstein and Innenminister des Landes Schleswig-Holstein [2010] ECR I-8149, para. 45, as well as C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, para. 74.
- 26.
Concurring: Spapens, T., Littler, A., and Fijnaut, C.J., Crime, Addiction and the Regulation of Gambling, Leiden: Martinus Nijhof Publishers, 2008. C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-6/01 Associação Nacional de Operadores de Máquinas Recreativas (Anomar) et alii v Estado português [2003] ECR I-8621, para. 75; C-243/01 Criminal Proceedings against Piergiorgio Gambelli et alii [2003] ECR I-13031, para. 67; C-42/02 Diana Elisabeth Lindman [2003] ECR I-13519, para. 23; C-338/04, C-359/04 and C-360/04 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Massimiliano Placanica, Christian Palazzese, Angelo Sorricchio [2007] ECR I-1891, para. 46; C-42/07 Liga Portuguesa de Futebol Profissional and Bwin International Ltd v Departamento de Jogos da Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa [2009] ECR I-7633, paras 56 and 72; C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, para. 88; C-64/08 Criminal Proceedings against Ernst Engelmann [2010] ECR I-8219, para. 29.
- 27.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 57.
- 28.
Young, R., and Todd, J., Online Gambling – Focusing on Integrity and a Code of Conduct for Gambling, Report prepared for the European Parliament by Europe Economics, 2008, at 2.
- 29.
Cf. already in C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 58.
- 30.
C-64/08 Criminal Proceedings against Ernst Engelmann [2010] ECR I-8219, para. 29, i.f.
- 31.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 57; C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 32; C-6/01 Associação Nacional de Operadores de Máquinas Recreativas (Anomar) et alii v Estado português [2003] ECR I-8621, para. 62; C-338/04, C-359/04 and C-360/04 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Massimiliano Placanica, Christian Palazzese, Angelo Sorricchio [2007] ECR I-1891, para. 52; C-42/07 Liga Portuguesa de Futebol Profissional and Bwin International Ltd v Departamento de Jogos da Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa [2009] ECR I-7633, para, 72.
- 32.
C-212/08 Zeturf Ltd v Premier ministre [2011] ECR I-5633, paras 49–50; C-347/09 Criminal Proceedings against Jochen Dickinger and Franz Ömer [2011] ECR I-8185, paras 74–76.
- 33.
Unger, B., & Ferwerda, J. Money Laundering in the Real Estate Sector: Suspicious Properties, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2011.
- 34.
Young, and Todd, Online Gambling – Focusing on Integrity and a Code of Conduct for Gambling, at 2.
- 35.
Chalmers, Davies, and Monti, European Union Law: Text and Materials, at 70–75.
- 36.
In relation to the gambling sector, the CJEU held in Commission v Italy that “the need to ensure continuity, financial stability and a proper return on past investments for licence holders” could not serve as overriding reasons in the general interest: C-260/04 Commission v Italy [2007] ECR I-7083, para. 35. For an overview of economic aspects of gambling, cf. Coryn, T., Fijnaut, C., and Littler, A., Economic Aspects of Gambling Regulation: EU and US Perspectives, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, (2008).
- 37.
Planzer (Ed.), Regulating Gambling in Europe – National Approaches to Gambling Regulation and Prevalence Rates of Pathological Gambling 1997–2010.
- 38.
Ex multis, Zollinger, Geschichte des Glücksspiels: Vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zum Zweiten Weltkrieg, at 283. Cf. for this point also Weber, M., Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Nördlichen: Druckerei C.H. Beck, 1904–1905.
- 39.
Buland, “Die Kultur des Spiels – Einige Aspekte zur Einführung”, at 11–12.
- 40.
A pragmatic perspective on games of chance may occasionally be noted among religious institutions as well. 5.3 % of the shares of Casinos Austria AG are held by ‘Bankhaus Schelhammer and Schattera’. According to the latter’s website, it is the oldest private bank of Vienna and held with a majoritarian ownership by institutions of the Roman-Catholic Church of Austria. The website of the bank states: “Closely bonded to the values and mandates of the Church in Austria” (‘Den Werten und Aufträgen der Kirche in Österreich eng verbunden’). Cf. Annual Report of Casinos Austria AG, 6, available at http://infochair.casinos.at/infochair/presse/gb09_low.pdf and http://www.schelhammer.at/kirche.
- 41.
Opinion of Advocate General Stix-Hackl in C-42/02 Diana Elisabeth Lindman [2003] ECR I-13519, para. 84.
- 42.
Opinion of Advocate General Fennelly in C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 32.
- 43.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 60.
- 44.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 36.
- 45.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 57.
- 46.
Cf. e.g. Bodo, C., Gordon, C., and Ilczuk, D., Gambling on Culture: State Lotteries as a Source of Funding for Culture - The Arts and Heritage, Amsterdam: Circle, 2004.
- 47.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 30; C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 43.
- 48.
Cf. the wording of the explanatory memorandum of the relevant Greek legislation establishing the State monopoly as quoted in the opinion of Advocate General Mazák in C-186/11 and C-209/11 (Joined Cases) Stanleybet International Ltd (C-186/11), William Hill Organization Ltd, William Hill Plc, and Sportingbet Plc (C-209/11) v Ypourgos Oikonomias kai Oikonomikon, Ypourgos Politismou, Intervener: Organismos Prognostikon Agonon Podosfairou AE (OPAP) [2013] nyr, para. 3.
- 49.
Opinion of Advocate General La Pergola in C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 35.
- 50.
Opinion of Advocate General La Pergola in ibid., para. 35.
- 51.
E-3/06 Ladbrokes Ltd. v the Government of Norway, Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs and the Government of Norway, Ministry of Agriculture and Food [2007] EFTA Court Report 86, para. 48.
- 52.
Potenza, M.N., “Gambling and Morality: A Neuropsychiatric Perspective” in Gambling: Mapping the American Moral Landscape, Wolfe, A., and Owens, E.C. (Eds.), Waco (Texas): Baylor University Press, 2009, pp. 175–191, at 175.
- 53.
E-1/06 EFTA Surveillance Authority v Norway [2007] EFTA Court Report 8, paras 8 and 40.
- 54.
C-212/08 Zeturf Ltd v Premier ministre [2011] ECR I-5633.
- 55.
C-318/07 Hein Persche v Finanzamt Lüdenscheid [2009] ECR I-359.
- 56.
Ibid., paras 45–46.
- 57.
C-386/04 Centro di Musicologia Walter Stauffer v Finanzamt München für Körperschaften [2006] ECR I-8203, para. 51.
- 58.
C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, para. 105.
- 59.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 30; C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 43.
- 60.
Bogart, W.A., Permit but Discourage - Regulating Excessive Consumption, Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, at 355 i.f.
- 61.
C-212/08 Zeturf Ltd v Premier ministre [2011] ECR I-5633, paras 59–61.
- 62.
C-46/08 Carmen Media Group Ltd v Land Schleswig-Holstein and Innenminister des Landes Schleswig-Holstein [2010] ECR I-8149, para. 45; C-316/07, C-358/07 to C-360/07, C-409/07 and C-410/07 (Joined Cases) Markus Stoss (C-316/07), Avalon Service-Online-Dienste GmbH (C-409/07) and Olaf Amadeus Wilhelm Happel (C-410/07) v Wetteraukreis and Kulpa Automatenservice Asperg GmbH (C-358/07), SOBO Sport & Entertainment GmbH (C-359/07) and Andreas Kunert (C-360/07) v Land Baden-Württemberg [2010] ECR I-8069, para. 74.
- 63.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 59.
- 64.
Ibid., para. 32.
- 65.
Devaney, M. (2009). “Online Gambling and International Regulation: An Outside Bet”, Information & Communications Technology Law, 18(3), 273–283, at 274; cf. also Hörnle, and Zammit, Cross-Border Online Gambling Law and Policy, at 175.
- 66.
Concurring: Verbeke who bluntly calls the morality-religion-culture argument mere hypocrisy: Verbeke, A.-L., “Gambling Regulation in Europe: Moving Beyond Ambiguity and Hypocrisy” in In the Shadow of Luxembourg: EU and National Developments in the Regulation of Gambling, Litter, A., Hoekx, N., Fijnaut, C., et al. (Eds.), Leiden/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011, pp. 251–259, at 257. Regarding diverging gambling tax approaches, cf. Häberling, G., “Internet Gambling Policy in Europe” in Routledge International Handbook of Internet Gambling, Williams, R.J., Wood, R.T., and Parke, J. (Eds.), London/New York: Routledge, 2012, pp. 284–299, at 294–295.
- 67.
C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 32.
- 68.
Doukas, and Anderson, “Commercial Gambling without Frontiers: When the ECJ Throws, the Dice is Loaded”, at 240.
- 69.
Ex multis, Badura, P., “Verfassungsrechtliche und gemeinschaftsrechtliche Fragen einer Neuordnung des Glücksspielwesens in Deutschland” in Aktuelle Probleme des Rechts der Glücksspiele - Vier Rechtsgutachten, Ennuschat, J. (Ed.), Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen, 2008, at 45.
- 70.
C-124/97 Markku Juhani Läärä, Cotswold Microsystems Ltd and Oy Transatlantic Software Ltd v Kihlakunnansyyttäjä (Jyväskylä) and Suomen valtio (Finnish State) [1999] ECR I-6067, para. 37. Similarly, the Belgium national lottery had, according to a Belgium court, “the objective of channelling man’s inherent compulsion to gamble” (C-525/06 De Nationale Loterij NV v Customer Service Agency BVBA [2009] ECR I-2197 (Order of the Court), para. 3). Furthermore, the Spanish government claimed that its policy of taxing winnings from games of chance was aimed to “discourage gambling in general.” Therefore, not the avoidance of excessive gambling but of gambling itself seemed to be the aim of the policy. It was, however, difficult to explain why winnings made with certain Spanish operators were exempted from taxation. The sums wagered with those operators covered more than 40 % of the national market. C-153/08 Commission v Spain [2009] ECR I-9735, in particular paras 36, 67–76.
- 71.
Advocate General Trstenjak supported the wording of the German government in her opinion in C-304/08 Zentrale zur Bekämpfung unlauteren Wettbewerbs eV v Plus Warenhandelsgesellschaft mbH [2010] ECR I-217, para. 93.
- 72.
Opinion of Advocate General Gulmann in C-275/92 Her Majesty’s Customs and Excise v Gerhart Schindler and Jörg Schindler [1994] ECR I-1039, para. 37.
- 73.
C-243/01 Criminal Proceedings against Piergiorgio Gambelli et alii [2003] ECR I-13031, para. 67. Similarly, the rationale underlying Latvian municipal authorities’ refusal to issue (additional) gambling licenses was “the concern to prevent the public from being tempted to favour games of chance over other leisure opportunities.” C-470/11 Garkalns SIA v Rigas dome [2012] nyr, para. 10.
- 74.
C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 30.
- 75.
C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 43.
- 76.
For a recent publication advocating an approach that regulates consumption while trying to discourage unhealthy forms or levels of consumption, cf. Bogart, Permit but Discourage - Regulating Excessive Consumption. For a nudge approach, cf. Thaler, R.H., and Sunstein, C.R., Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness, New Haven CT/London: Yale University Press, 2008.
- 77.
Samuel Hopkins, pastor of the First Congregational Church, Montpelier, Vermont, The Evils of Gambling, sermon of 19 April 1835, cited in: Thompson, W.N., Gambling in America: An Encyclopedia of History, Issues, and Society, Vol. 1, Santa Barbara (California): ABC-CLIO Inc., 2001, at 131.
- 78.
Buland, “Die Kultur des Spiels – Einige Aspekte zur Einführung”, at 10.
- 79.
Lutter, M. (2011). “Konkurrenten auf dem Markt für Hoffnung. Religiöse Wurzeln der gesellschaftlichen Problematisierung von Glücksspielen”, Soziale Probleme, 22(1), 28–55.
- 80.
Buland, “Die Kultur des Spiels – Einige Aspekte zur Einführung”, at 11. Cf. also Schumacher, “‘Des Teufels Spiel’ – Glücksspiel in Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit”.
- 81.
Zollinger, Geschichte des Glücksspiels: Vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zum Zweiten Weltkrieg, at 283. Cf. further for this point Weber, Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik.
- 82.
Potenza, “Gambling and Morality: A Neuropsychiatric Perspective”, at 176 and the therein cited literature.
- 83.
Sartre, J.-P., L’existentialisme est un humanisme, Paris: Nagel, (1946).
- 84.
C-26/62 NV Algemene Transport- en Expeditie Onderneming van Gend & Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] ECR English special edition 1, at II, B, 4th para.: “The conclusion to be drawn from this is that the Community constitutes a new legal order of international law […] and the subjects of which comprise not only Member States but also their nationals. […] Community law therefore is also intended to confer upon them rights which become part of their legal heritage.”
- 85.
Cf. hereto the principle of direct effect as enshrined in ibid., at II, B, 4th para.
- 86.
For the concept of ‘Verfassungspatriotismus’, cf. Sternberger, D., Verfassungspatriotismus, Frankfurt a.M.: Insel, 1990.
- 87.
TEU, Preamble, 3rd para.: “DRAWING INSPIRATION from the cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe, from which have developed the universal values of the inviolable and inalienable rights of the human person, freedom, democracy, equality and the rule of law.”
- 88.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, OJ C 303, 14.12.2007, Preamble, 2nd para.: “Conscious of its spiritual and moral heritage, the Union is founded on the indivisible, universal values of human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity; it is based on the principles of democracy and the rule of law. It places the individual at the heart of its activities, by establishing the citizenship of the Union and by creating an area of freedom, security and justice.”
- 89.
Concurring: Verbeke who refers to the morality argument as hypocritical: Verbeke, “Gambling Regulation in Europe: Moving Beyond Ambiguity and Hypocrisy”, at 257.
- 90.
Gasser, U., “Responsibility for Human Rights Violations, Acts or Omissions, within the ‘Sphere of Influence’ of Companies” in Human Rights, Corporate Complicity and Disinvestment, Nystuen, G., Follesda, A., and Mestad, O. (Eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 107–131.
- 91.
The next couple of paragraphs profited from a discussion with Professor Mathias Kumm of New York University.
- 92.
C-36/02 Omega Spielhallen- und Automatenaufstellungs-GmbH v Oberbürgermeisterin der Bundesstadt Bonn 92004) ECR I-9609.
- 93.
Ibid., para. 39.
- 94.
Ibid., para. 39.
- 95.
For the two previous paragraphs, cf. the introductory remarks on the article by Collins in: Ross, D., and Kincaid, H., “Introduction: What Is Addiction?” in What Is Addiction?, Ross, D., and Kincaid, H. (Eds.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010, pp. vii–xl, at ix. Cf. also Collins, P., Gambling and the Public Interest, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003.
- 96.
Collins, P., “Defining Addiction and Identifying the Public Interest in Liberal Democracies” in What is Addiction?, Ross, D., Kincaid, H., Spurret, D., et al. (Eds.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010, pp. 410–433, at 411.
- 97.
Regarding drugs and gambling policies, cf. e.g. Euchner, E.-M., Heichel, S., Nebel, K. et al. (2013), “From Morality Policy to Normal Policy: Framing of Drug Consumption and Gambling in Germany and the Netherlands and Their Regulatory Consequences, in Morality Policies in Europe: Concepts, Theories, and Empirical Evidence”, Christoph Knill (guest editor), Journal of European Public Policy, 20(3) (Special Issue: Morality Policies in Europe: Concepts, Theories, and Empirical Evidence), 372–389.
- 98.
Ross, and Kincaid, “Introduction: What Is Addiction?”, at vii.
- 99.
Concurring: Verbeke who noted that much gambling legislation was based on assumptions regarding gambling addiction that are presented as if they were facts: Verbeke, “Gambling Regulation in Europe: Moving Beyond Ambiguity and Hypocrisy”, at 257.
- 100.
Ross, and Kincaid, “Introduction: What Is Addiction?”, at vii.
- 101.
E-3/06 Ladbrokes Ltd. v the Government of Norway, Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs and the Government of Norway, Ministry of Agriculture and Food [2007] EFTA Court Report 86, para. 49.
- 102.
C-447/08 and C-448/08 (Joined Cases) Criminal Proceedings against Otto Sjöberg (C-447/08) and Anders Gerdin (C-448/08) [2010] ECR I-6921, para. 43; C-67/98 Questore di Verona v Diego Zenatti [1999] ECR I-7289, para. 36.
- 103.
Concurring with similar wording: Bogart, Permit but Discourage – Regulating Excessive Consumption, at 355 i.f.
- 104.
Note in this context that the humanistic principle of placing the human being at the centre of reflection is prominently referred to in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, OJ C 303, 14.12.2007, Preamble, at 2nd para.: “[The Union] places the individual at the heart of its activities.”
- 105.
For a publication convincingly making this point, cf. Khantzian, E.J., and Albanese, M.J., Understanding Addiction as Self Medication: Finding Hope behind The Pain, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc., 2008.
- 106.
This paragraph profited from a discussion with Dr Richard LaBrie of Harvard Medical School.
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Planzer, S. (2014). Justification Grounds in EU Gambling Law. In: Empirical Views on European Gambling Law and Addiction. Studies in European Economic Law and Regulation, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02306-9_7
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