Abstract
To date, many in vitro Mg biodegradation tests are not being carried out in a reproducible or clear manner. In many cases, values of important variables (such as pH) are not reported, or are not correctly controlled throughout the experiments; in other cases, values are being used which do not mimic physiological conditions. Typical issues include the use of unphysiological temperatures or alkalised media, as well as set-ups with either unadjusted or uncontrolled pH values, far outside the body’s natural range. In many studies, it is difficult to determine what was and was not controlled—this also makes it difficult to compare studies. The influences and impacts of experimental parameters such as pH, solution composition and temperature are discussed in this chapter. It is shown that it is very difficult to relate results from studies performed under non-physiological conditions to in vivo performance.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Mueller WD, Lucia Nascimento M et al (2010) Critical discussion of the results from different corrosion studies of Mg and Mg alloys for biomaterial applications. Acta Biomater 6(5):1749–1755
Kim W-C, Kim J-G et al (2008) Influence of Ca on the corrosion properties of magnesium for biomaterials. Mater Lett 62(25):4146–4148
Denkena B, Lucas A (2007) Biocompatible magnesium alloys as absorbable implant materials—adjusted surface and subsurface properties by machining processes. CIRP Ann: Manuf Technol 56(1):113–116
Hassel T, Bach FW et al (2006) Investigation of the mechanical properties and the corrosion behaviour of low alloyed magnesium–calcium alloys for use as absorbable biomaterial in the implant technique. In: Pekguleryuz M (ed) Conference of metallurgists: magnesium technology in the global age, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, pp 359–369
Lee J-Y, Han G et al (2009) Effects of impurities on the biodegradation behavior of pure magnesium. Met Mater Int 15(6):955–961
Peng Q, Huang Y et al (2010) Preparation and properties of high purity Mg-Y biomaterials. Biomaterials 31(3):398–403
Lopez HY, Cortes DA et al (2006) In vitro bioactivity assessment of metallic magnesium. Key Eng Mater 309(311):453–456
Yang L, Zhang E (2009) Biocorrosion behavior of magnesium alloy in different simulated fluids for biomedical application. Mater Sci Eng, C 29(5):1691–1696
Jones DA (1992) Principles and prevention of corrosion. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Burstein GT, Liu C (2007) Nucleation of corrosion pits in Ringer’s solution containing bovine serum. Corros Sci 49(11):4296–4306
Omanovic S, Roscoe SG (1999) Electrochemical studies of the adsorption behavior of bovine serum albumin on stainless steel. Langmuir 15(23):8315–8321
Trépanier C, Pelton AR (2004) Effect of temperature and pH on the corrosion resistance of passivated nitinol and stainless steel. In: Proceedings of international conference on shape memory and superelastic technologies, ASM International, Baden, Germany, pp 361–366
Burstein GT, Liu C et al (2005) The effect of temperature on the nucleation of corrosion pits on titanium in Ringer’s physiological solution. Biomaterials 26(3):245–256
Cavanaugh MK, Birbilis N et al (2012) Modeling pit initiation rate as a function of environment for Aluminium alloy 7075-T651. Electrochim Acta 59:336–345
Lambert RA (1913) The influence of temperature and fluid medium on the survival of embryonic tissues in vitro. J Exp Methods 18(4):406–411
Kirkland NT, Staiger MP et al (2011) Performance-driven design of biocompatible Mg-alloys. JOM 63(6):28–34
Gerasimov VV, Rozenfeld IL (1957) Effect of temperature on the rate of corrosion of metals. Russ Chem Bull 6(10):1192–1197
Makar GLJK (1993) Corrosion of magnesium. Int Mater Rev 38(3):138–153
Song G, Atrens A et al (1997) The anodic dissolution of magnesium in chloride and sulphate solutions. Corros Sci 39(10–11):1981–2004
Duygulu O, Kaya RA et al (2007) Investigation on the Potential of Magnesium Alloy AZ31 as a Bone Implant. Mater Sci Forum 546–549:421–424
Layrolle P, Daculsi G (2009) Physiochemistry of apatite and its related calcium phosphates. In: Leon B, Jansen JA (eds) Thin calcium phosphate coatings for medical implants. Springer, New York
Yin G, Liu Z et al (2002) Impacts of the surface charge property on protein adsorption on hydroxyapatite. Chem Eng J 87(2):181–186
Sharpe JR, Sammons RL et al (1997) Effect of pH on protein adsorption to hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate ceramics. Biomaterials 18(6):471–476
Liang H, Huang F et al (2007) Enhanced calcium phosphate precipitation on the surface of Mg-ion-implanted ZrO2 bioceramic. Surf Rev Lett 14(1):71–77
Lu X, Leng Y (2005) Theoretical analysis of calcium phosphate precipitation in simulated body fluid. Biomaterials 26(10):1097–1108
Ng WF, Chiu KY et al (2010) Effect of pH on the in vitro corrosion rate of magnesium degradable implant material. Mater Sci Eng C 30(6):898–903
Waters JH, Miller LR et al (1999) Cause of metabolic acidosis in prolonged surgery. Crit Care Med 27(10):2142–2146
Chakkalakal DA, Mashoof AA et al (1994) Mineralization and pH relationships in healing skeletal defects grafted with demineralized bone matrix. J Biomed Mater Res 28(12):1439–1443
Malda J, Woodfield TBF et al (2008) Cell nutrition: in vitro and in vivo. Tissue Eng: A Textbook 1:327–362
Hall JE (2010) Guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology, 11th edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Boron WF, Boulpaep EL (eds) (2008) Medical physiology, 2nd edn. Saunders, New York
Sigma-Aldrich (2010) Fundamental techniques in cell culture: A laboratory handbook. Sigma-Aldrich. http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/life-science/cell-culture/learning-center/ecacc-handbook/cell-culture-techniques-6.html#Buffering. Accessed 8 Oct 2010
Good NE, Winget GD et al (1966) Hydrogen ion buffers for biological research. Biochemistry 5(2):467–477
Masters JRW (ed) (2000) Animal cell cultures. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Eley JH (1988) The use of hepes as a buffer for the growth of the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 28(3):297–300
Yang JX, Cui FZ et al (2009) Characterization and degradation study of calcium phosphate coating on magnesium alloy bone implant in vitro. IEEE Trans Plasma Sci 37(7):1161–1168
Puigdomenech I (2013) Medusa chemical equilibrium calculator. Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
Rettig R, Virtanen S (2009) Composition of corrosion layers on a magnesium rare-earth alloy in simulated body fluids. J Biomed Mater Res: Part A 88(2):359–369
Sigma-Aldrich (2010) RPMI-1640 medium: Dutch modification. Sigma-Aldrich Inc. http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/. Accessed 8 Oct 2010
Montemor MF, Simões AM et al (2007) Characterization of rare-earth conversion films formed on the AZ31 magnesium alloy and its relation with corrosion protection. Appl Surf Sci 253(16):6922–6931
Gu X, Zheng Y et al (2010) Corrosion of, and cellular responses to Mg-Zn-Ca bulk metallic glasses. Biomaterials 31(6):1093–1103
Roberge PR (2000) Handbook of corrosion engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York
Yamamoto A, Hiromoto S (2009) Effect of inorganic salts, amino acids and proteins on the degradation of pure magnesium in vitro. Mater Sci Eng C 29(5):1559–1568
Regnier P, Lasaga AC et al (1994) Mechanism of CO3 2− substitution in carbonate-fluorapatite: evidence from FTIR Spectroscopy, 13C NMR, and quantum mechanical calculations. Am Mineral 79(9–10):809–818
Rey C, Collins B et al (1989) The carbonate environment in bone mineral: a resolution-enhanced fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study. Calcif Tissue Int 45(3):157–164
Tatzber M, Stemmer M et al (2007) An alternative method to measure carbonate in soils by FT-IR spectroscopy. Environ Chem Lett 5(1):9–12
Doi Y, Moriwaki Y et al (1982) ESR and IR studies of carbonate-containing hydroxyapatites. Calcif Tissue Int 34(1):178–181
Burgess SK, Carey DM et al (1992) Novel protein inhibits in vitro precipitation of calcium carbonate. Arch Biochem Biophys 297(2):383–387
Kirkland N, Waterman J et al (2012) Buffer-regulated biocorrosion of pure magnesium. J Mater Sci Mater Med 23(2):283–291
Gu XN, Zheng YF et al (2009) Influence of artificial biological fluid composition on the biocorrosion of potential orthopedic Mg-Ca, AZ31, AZ91 alloys. Biomed Mater 4(6):8
Xin Y, Hu T et al (2010) Influence of test solutions on in vitro studies of biomedical magnesium alloys. J Electrochem Soc 157(7):C238–C243
Liu C, Xin Y et al (2007) Degradation susceptibility of surgical magnesium alloy in artificial biological fluid containing albumin. J Mater Res 22(7):1806–1814
Eliezer A, Witte F (2010) Corrosion behaviour of magnesium alloys in biomedical environments. Adv Mater Res 95:17–20
Liu C, Xin Y et al (2007) Influence of heat treatment on degradation behavior of bio-degradable die-cast AZ63 magnesium alloy in simulated body fluid. Mater Sci Eng, A 456(1–2):350–357
Alvarez-Lopez M, Pereda MD et al (2010) Corrosion behaviour of AZ31 magnesium alloy with different grain sizes in simulated biological fluids. Acta Biomater 6(5):1763–1771
Witte F, Nellesen J et al (2006) In vitro and in vivo corrosion measurements of magnesium alloys. Biomaterials 27(7):1013–1018
Kokubo T, Kushitani H et al (1990) Solutions able to reproduce in vivo surface-structure changes in bioactive glass-ceramic. J Biomed Mater Res 24:721–734
Kokubo T, Takadama H (2006) How useful is SBF in predicting in vivo bone bioactivity? Biomaterials 27(15):2907–2915
Oyane A, Kim H-M et al (2003) Preparation and assessment of revised simulated body fluids. J Biomed Mater Res: Part A 65A(2):188–195
Takadama H, Hashimoto M et al (2004) Round-robin test of SBF for in vitro measurement of apatite-forming ability of synthetic materials. Phosphorus Res Bull 17:119–125
Liu CL, Zhang XM et al (2010) In vitro corrosion degradation behaviour of Mg-Ca alloy in the presence of albumin. Corros Sci 52(10):3341–3347
Mueller WD, Nascimento ML et al (2007) Magnesium and its alloys as degradable biomaterials: corrosion studies using potentiodynamic and EIS electrochemical techniques. Mater Res 10:5–10
Klinger A, Steinberg D et al (1997) Mechanism of adsorption of human albumin to titanium in vitro. J Biomed Mater Res 36:387–392
Vogt C, Bechstein K et al (2008) Investigation of the degradation of biodegradable Mg implant alloys in vitro and in vivo by analytical methods. In: Kainer KU (ed) Proceedings of 8th international conference on magnesium alloys and their applications, Weimar, Germany, Wiley-VCH, pp 1162–1174
Padilla N, Bronson A (2007) Electrochemical characterization of albumin protein on Ti-6al-4v alloy immersed in a simulated plasma solution. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 81A(3):531–543
Langmuir I (1916) The constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids. J Am Chem Soc 38:2221–2295
Xu L, Pan F et al (2009) In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the surface bioactivity of a calcium phosphate coated magnesium alloy. Biomaterials 30(8):1512–1523
Gu XN (2010) Microstructure, biocorrosion and cytotoxicity evaluations of rapid solidified Mg–3Ca alloy ribbons as a biodegradable material. Biomed Mater 5(3):035013
León B, Jansen JA (eds) (2008) Thin calcium phosphate coatings for medical implants. Springer, New York
Mueller WD, de Mele MFL et al (2009) Degradation of magnesium and its alloys: dependence on the composition of the synthetic biological media. J Biomed Mater Res: Part A 90A(2):487–495
Kohrer C, Bhandary UR (2009) Protein engineering. Nucleic acids and molecular biology, vol 22. Springer, Berlin
Ashassi-Sorkhabi H, Ghasemi Z et al (2005) The inhibition effect of some amino acids towards the corrosion of Aluminium in 1 m Hcl+ 1 m H2SO4 Solution. Appl Surf Sci 249(1–4):408–418
El-Shafei AA, Moussa MNH et al (1997) Inhibitory effect of amino acids on al pitting corrosion in 0.1 M NaCl. J Appl Electrochem 27(9):1075–1078
Bereket G, Yurt A (2001) The inhibition effect of amino acids and hydroxy carboxylic acids on pitting corrosion of Aluminium alloy 7075. Corros Sci 43(6):1179–1195
Ashassi-Sorkhabi H, Majidi MR et al (2004) Investigation of inhibition effect of some amino acids against steel corrosion in HCl solution. Appl Surf Sci 225(1–4):176–185
Kiani MA, Mousavi MF et al (2008) Inhibitory effect of some amino acids on corrosion of Pb-Ca-Sn alloy in sulfuric acid solution. Corros Sci 50(4):1035–1045
William DF, William RL (2004) Degradative effects of the biological environment on metals and ceramics. In: Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Schoen FJ, Lemons JE (eds) Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, p 430
Bruneel N, Helsen JA (1988) In vitro simulation of biocompatibility of Ti-Al-V. J Biomed Mater Res 22(3):203–214
Mu Y, Kobayashi T et al (2000) Metal ion release from titanium with active oxygen species generated by rat macrophages in vitro. J Biomed Mater Res 49(2):238–243
Li Z, Gu X et al (2008) The development of binary Mg-Ca alloys for use as biodegradable materials within bone. Biomaterials 29(10):1329–1344
Zhang S, Zhang X et al (2010) Research of Mg-Zn alloy as degradable biomaterial. Acta Biomater 6(2):626–640
Ren Y, Wang H et al (2007) Study of biodegradation of pure magnesium. Key Eng Mater 342–343:601–604
Witte F, Feyerabend F et al (2007) Biodegradable magnesium-hydroxyapatite metal matrix composites. Biomaterials 28(13):2163–2174
Lorenz C, Brunner JG et al (2009) Effect of surface pre-treatments on biocompatibility of magnesium. Acta Biomater 5(7):2783–2789
Zhang S, Li J et al (2009) In vitro degradation, hemolysis and MC3T3-E1 cell adhesion of biodegradable Mg-Zn alloy. Mater Sci Eng C 29(6):1907–1912
Zhang E, Yin D et al (2009) Microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties and biocompatibility of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys for biomedical application. Mater Sci Eng C 29(3):987–993
Witte F, Feyerabend F et al (2006) Unphysiologically high magnesium concentrations support chondrocyte proliferation and redifferentiation. Tissue Eng 12(12):3545–3556
Pietak AM, Mahoney T et al (2007) Bone-like matrix formation on magnesium and magnesium alloys. J Biomed Mater Res 19(1):407–415
Gu X, Zheng Y et al (2009) In vitro corrosion and biocompatibility of binary magnesium alloys. Biomaterials 30(4):484–498
Feyerabend F, Fischer J et al (2010) Evaluation of short-term effects of rare earth and other elements used in magnesium alloys on primary cells and cell lines. Acta Biomater 6(5):1834–1842
Yun Y, Dong Z et al (2009) Biodegradable Mg corrosion and osteoblast cell culture studies. Mater Sci Eng C 29(6):1814–1821
Feser K, Kietzmann M et al (2010) Effects of degradable Mg-Ca alloys on dendritic cell function. J Biomater Appl 25(7):685–697
Wong HM, Yeung KWK et al (2010) A biodegradable polymer-based coating to control the performance of magnesium alloy orthopaedic implants. Biomaterials 31:2084–2096
Hiromoto S (2008) Corrosion of metallic biomaterials in cell culture environments. Electrochem Soc Interface 17:41–44
Witte F, Ulrich H et al (2007) Biodegradable magnesium scaffolds: part 1: appropriate inflammatory response. J Biomed Mater Res: Part A 81:748–756
Love LC (1985) Principles of metallurgy. Reston Publishing Company, Reston
Doege E, Droder K (2003) Deformation of magnesium. In: Kainer KU (ed) Magnesium—alloys and technologies. Wilkey-VCH Verlag GmbH, Weinheim
Shi Z, Atrens A (2011) An innovative specimen configuration for the study of Mg corrosion. Corros Sci 53(1):226–246
Alvarez RB, Martin HJ et al (2010) Corrosion relationships as a function of time and surface roughness on a structural AE44 magnesium alloy. Corros Sci 52(5):1635–1648
Gentile F, Tirinato L et al (2010) Cells preferentially grow on rough substrates. Biomaterials 31(28):7205–7212
Bruckenstein S, Sharkey JW et al (1985) Effect of polishing with different size abrasives on the current response at a rotating disk electrode. Anal Chem 57(1):368–371
Samuels LE (2003) Metallographic polishing by mechanical methods, 4th edn. ASM International, Materials Park
Gale WF, Totemeir TC (eds) (2004) Smithells metals reference book, 8th edn. Elsevier Inc., Oxford
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kirkland, N.T., Birbilis, N. (2014). Influence of Environmental Variables on In Vitro Performance. In: Magnesium Biomaterials. SpringerBriefs in Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02123-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02123-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-02122-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-02123-2
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)