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Regional Security: Maritime Issues

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From Environmental to Comprehensive Security

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice ((BRIEFSTEXTS,volume 13))

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Abstract

The Chapter begins by presenting the ocean as a common heritage of humankind and then continues by outlining environmental abuses of the ocean. Following that it offers a number of environmentally relevant confidence-building measures, after some initial considerations emphasizing international law, ecogeographical regions, natural resources, and nature reserves. It is concluded that the need is becoming ever more urgent for the community of nations to develop sufficient confidence among themselves to develop naval restraints that would, inter alia, help alleviate the pressures on an ever more heavily utilized ocean. It is additionally concluded that cooperation among nations to achieve sustainable and equitable development for the ocean, whether regionally or globally, would itself contribute to the development of mutual trust.

This Chapter is reproduced from the author’s Entry #233 provided in Chap. 2, with the original title, ‘Environmental dimensions of maritime security’. It is used here by permission of the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, the copyright holder, as given on 25 March 2013. The author is grateful to Jozef Goldblat for relevant discussions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Sovereign nations: The number of de facto sovereign nations in the world is for purposes of this study considered at present (mid-1992) to be 189: the 178 members of the United Nations plus Andorra, Georgia, Kiribati, Macedonia, Monaco, Nauru, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vatican City. Of these 189 de facto sovereign states, 150 are coastal (littoral) (of which 46 are islands) and 39 are landlocked (hinterland). [As at February 2013, there are perhaps 195 sovereign states (the 193 members of the United Nations plus Taiwan and Vatican City), of which 151 are coastal (including 49 which are islands) and 44 are landlocked.]

  2. 2.

    The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (UNTS 31363) entered into force in 1994. As at February 2013 it had 165 states parties. The present Chapter had first appeared in 1992 prior to its coming into force, thus reflecting that status.

  3. 3.

    1977 Protocol I (UNTS 17512): It has been suggested that the protection of the natural environment afforded by this instrument does not apply to naval warfare (e.g., Alatas et al. 1986: 78). This is not the case. It is true that the protection deriving from its Article 55 is subject to the limitations imposed by Article 49; thus, although the source of the threat—whether from land, sea, or air—is not limited by Article 49, some might suggest that the protection resulting from Article 55 applies only to the terrestrial environment. On the other hand, the protection of the natural environment afforded by Article 35 has no comparable limitations attached to it, either as to origin of attack or location of target.

    It is useful to point out that, by virtue of Articles 35 and 55, environmental protection has in a formal sense has become part and parcel of the International Humanitarian Law component of the Law of War or Armed Conflict. This is especially important because the environmental protection deriving from the corpus of International Environmental Law is largely inapplicable to environmental disruption of military origin (cf. Footnote 5).

  4. 4.

    Miscellaneous ocean zones: (1) South Pacific Ocean: The 1985 South Pacific Nuclear-weapon Free Treaty (UNTS 24592) serves to denuclearize the territorial seas of the states parties—a coastal strip of ocean 22 km (12 nautical miles) in width for most of the states parties. The treaty additionally delineates an ocean zone surrounding the states parties which is about 118 million km2 (ca 33 % of the total ocean), which the nuclear powers are invited to respect as a nuclear-weapon-free zone.

    (2) Indian Ocean: The 1971 Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace designates that body, about 71 million km2 in extent (ca 20 % of the total ocean), ‘for all time as a zone of peace’ (UNGA 1971). Many years of negotiation on clarifying that Declaration have to date been inconclusive (e.g., UNGA 1990a, 1991a).

  5. 5.

    Sovereign immunity: The 1973/1978 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (UNTS 22484) does not apply to warships or any other naval ships (cf. its Article 3.3). Regrettably, such so-called sovereign immunity is a common feature of ocean-related treaties. For example, the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (UNTS 15749) has a similar restriction (cf. its Article 7.4). And the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (UNTS 31363) repeats such a restriction in a number of its articles. Of special importance is the deleterious waiver spelled out in its Article 236: ‘The provisions of this Convention regarding protection and preservation of the marine environment do not apply to any warship, naval auxiliary, other vessels or aircraft owned or operated by a State and used, for the time being, only on government non-commercial service’. A detailed exposition of sovereign immunity is available (Pinto 1992).

  6. 6.

    Formally protected areas worldwide as of September 2012: 1.6 % of the ocean (although ca 7 % of territorial waters), and 12.7 % of the land (cf. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/ppr2012_903.html).

  7. 7.

    It can only be hoped that the independent Global Ocean Commission (Oxford) established in February 2013, will facilitate success in addressing some of these pressing issues inasmuch as its mission is to formulate politically and technically feasible recommendations to address: (1) over-fishing; (2) large-scale loss of habitat and biodiversity; (3) the lack of effective management and enforcement; and (4) deficiencies in high-seas governance (cf. www.globaloceancommission.org).

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  1. Security and Education, Westing Associates in Environment, Fred Houghton Rd 134, Putney, VT, 05346, USA

    Arthur H. Westing

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Westing, A.H. (2013). Regional Security: Maritime Issues. In: From Environmental to Comprehensive Security. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice(), vol 13. Springer, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00687-1_5

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