Abstract
There is currently no civil liability or other compensation regime applying specifically to liability for GMOs (cf. the administrative liability scheme described below), but at the time of writing the Government was engaged in a public consultation about proposals for introducing a statutory redress scheme in respect of economic damage resulting from GMO presence in non-GM crops. There are no plans to introduce new statutory liability or compensation provisions for other damage caused by GMOs, though liability may arise in some cases under existing legal principles. The proposed scheme relates to England only; it is for the devolved authorities in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland to develop their own policy in the area.
The following report focuses on the law of England and Wales only. References to Scots law are only included where appropriate. On the state of Scots law, see e.g. M. Ruskell, GM Liability — Who Should Carry the Can? (2003, available at http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/ bills/pdfs/mb-consultations/gm-consultation.pdf) 10–11.
I am very grateful to Elen Stokes for research assistance in connection with this report.
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References
AEBC, GM Crops? Coexistence and Liability (2003).
DEFRA, Consulation on proposals for managing the coexistence of GM, conventional and organic crops (2006), available online at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/gm/crops/pdf/ gmcoexist-condoc.pdf.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §161.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §139.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §§165-166.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §157.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §150.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §152.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §161.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §137.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §138. The GM presence is normally to be assessed on a ‘whole field’ basis: §142. In the case of crops not sold by the field but individually, presence will be assessed by sampling the closest row to the GM crop, and then another halfway into the field. If both tests are positive, the whole field is deemed ‘GM’, but if only the first test is positive, then only crops in the first half of the field are deemed ‘GM’: § 143.
AEBC, (supra fn. 4) §252.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §149.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §139.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §140.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §141. The example given is sweetcorn maize grown as non-GM, where GM maize is grown only as a forage crop and there is no market in which it is traded.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §144.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §145.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §146.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §148.
The options are set out at_DEFRA (supra fn. 10) § 166.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §§151 and 168.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §167.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §§162-4.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §§165-9.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §162.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §165.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §154.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §155.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §156.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §157.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §§162-4.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §165.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §147.
See generally M. Lee/ R. Burrell, Liability for the Escape of GM Seeds: Pursuing the ‘Victim’ (2002) 65 MLR 517 and C. Rodgers, Liability for the Release of GMOs into the Environment: Exploring the Boundaries of Nuisance, [2003] CLJ 371.
Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 AC 264.
Geddis v Proprietors of Bann Reservoir (1878) 3 App Cas 430.
On which, see R v Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, ex p Watson [1999] Env LR 310.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) 137.
I shall not make specific mention of the case-law in the United States, as other Commonwealth jurisdictions tend to be a better guide to possible developments in English law. Relevant US cases include In re StarLink Corn Products Liability Litigation, Kramer v Aventis CropScience USA Holding Inc (2002) 212 F Supp (2d) 828 and Sample v Monsanto Co (2003) 283 F Supp (2d) 1088.
2005 Saskatchewan Court of Queen’s Bench (SKQB) 225, [2005] 7 WWR 665, affirmed [2007] 6 WWR 387. For background, see J. M. Glenn, Footloose: Civil Responsibility for GMO Gene Wandering in Canada, (2004) 43 Washburn LJ 547.
In addition to the torts considered in the text below, the claimants had also sought to rely on trespass to land, but Smith J concluded that they could not succeed because the defendant had not directly interfered with the claimants’ land: [2005] 7 WWR 665 at [133].
Hoffman v Monsanto Canada Inc [2007] 6 WWR 387.
[1990] 2 AC 605. In Customs and Excise Commissioners v Barclays Bank plc [2006] UKHL 28, [2006] 3 WLR 1 the House of Lords observed that other ‘tests’ might also be employed in particular cases, but accepted that the Caparo principles provided ‘a convenient general framework’ for analysis (at [93] per Lord Mance).
Cf. Customs and Excise Commissioners v Barclays Bank plc [2006] 3 WLR 1 at [53] per Lord Rodger (‘a court faced with a novel situation must apply the threefold test’).
Above fn. 54.
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [64]-[66].
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [67] and [70].
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [71]. It is submitted that this is a matter more properly considered under ‘breach of duty’.
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [72].
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [77].
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [80]-[81].
Cf. Customs and Excise Commissioners v Barclays Bank plc [2006] 3 WLR 1 at [31] per Lord Hoffmann (‘In the case of personal or physical injury, reasonable foreseeability of harm is usually enough... to generate a duty of care.’)
Rothwell v Chemical & Insulating Co Ltd [2007] UKHL 39, [2008] 7 AC 281.
[2008] 1 AC 281 at [8] per Lord Hoffman at [47] per Lord Hope.
See, eg, [2008] 1 AC 281 at [68] per Lord Scott.
Contra, M. Lee/ R. Burrell (supra fn. 48) 530.
This general exclusionary rule was recently affirmed by the House of Lords in Customs and Excise Commissioners v Barclays Bank plc [2006] 3 WLR 1.
Cf. Geddis v Proprietors of Bann Reservoir (1878) 3 App Cas 430 (statutory authorisation).
See, eg, E Hobbs (Farms) Ltd v Baxenden Chemical Co Ltd [1992] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 54.
J. Stephen, A Digest of the Criminal Law (1877) 108 approved by Lord Bingham in R v Rimmington [2006] 1 AC 459 at [36].
Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd [1997] AC 655.
C. Rodgers (supra fn. 48) 381 plausibly suggests that GM crop farming is more likely to give rise to liability in private nuisance if the area is one which has declared itself ‘GM free’ via collective land-use decisions made within the community.
See further Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd v Morris (t/a Soundstar Studio) [2004] EWCA Civ 172, [2004]Env LR 41.
Gillingham Borough Council v Chatham and Medway Dock Co Ltd [1993] QB 343. Cf. Wheeler v Saunders [1996] Ch 19. C. Rodgers (supra fn. 48) 395 argues that the licensed planting of GM crops does not change the character of the area as such, or what is reasonable land-use in it, but effects merely a subtle change in the nature of local agricultural production.
Salvin v North Brancepeth Coal Co [1873] LR 9 Ch App 705. In a well-known dictum, James LJ stated (p. 709) that the damage must be ‘visible’ and that’ scientific evidence, such as the microscope of the naturalist, or the tests of the chemist,’ would not suffice to establish it: ‘The damage must be such as can be shewn by a plain witness to a plain common juryman.’ Cf. Mellish LJ at 713: the damage must be such that ‘every fairly instructed eye can really and clearly see it.’_AEBC, (supra fn. 4) doubted whether adventitious GM presence would be visible in this way. However, a lack of visible damage does not preclude liability in private nuisance in other contexts (e.g. water pollution: see, e.g., Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 AC 264) and it is submitted that Salvin does not require visibility in a literal sense, only that the alleged damage manifests itself in some way that would be appreciable to an ordinary, informed person. See further C. Rodgers (supra fn. 48) 382–7.
[2005] 7 WWR 665. See no. 32 above.
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [122].
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [107]-[108].
AEBC, (supra fn. 4) §268. See further C. Rodgers (supra fn. 48) 392–4. The question of hypersensitivity was raised by Buxton LJ in R v Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, exp Watson [1999] Env LR 310, 323 but not answered.
Fletcher v Rylands (1866) LR 1 Ex 265, 279–280 approved by the House of Lords in Rylands v Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330.
Transco plc v Stockport MBC [2004] 2 AC 1 at [10] per Lord Bingham.
Read v J Lyons & Co [1947] AC 156.
Transco plc v Stockport MBC [2004] 2 AC 1 at [11] per Lord Bingham.
Rickards v Lothian [1913] AC 263, 280.
Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 AC 264, 308–9 per Lord Goff.
Transco plc v Stockport MBC [2004] 2 AC 1 at [11] per Lord Bingham.
[2005] 7 WWR 665 at [96]#x2013;[97].
See further M. Lee/ R. Burrell (supra fn. 48) 532–533 and C. Rodgers (supra fn. 48) 377 (‘improbable’ that growing GM crops would be seen as a non-natural use). Rodgers also questions whether Rylands v Fletcher applies to escapes which are not isolated, but Lord Goff in Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 AC 264, 306 observed that the rule was not limited in that respect.
Bonnington Castings Ltd v Wardlaw [1956] AC 613.
McGhee v National Coal Board [1973] 1 WLR 1; Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2003] 1 AC 32. See further II, 2(c) below.
Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Morts Dock & Engineering Co Ltd, The Wagon Mound [1961] AC 388. This rule applies even under the strict liability rule in Rylands v Fletcher: Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 AC 264.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) 137.
Bonnington Castings Ltd v Wardlaw [1956] AC 613.
Holtbyv Brigham & Cowan (Hull) Ltd [2000] 3 All ER 421.
Cf. Wilsher v Essex Area Health Authority [1988] AC 1074.
McGhee v National Coal Board [1973] 1 WLR 1; Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2003] 1 AC 32.
Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2003] 1 AC 32.
McGhee v National Coal Board [1973] 1 WLR 1.
Barker v Corus UK Ltd [2006] UKHL 20, [2006] 2 WLR 1027.
Cf. Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2003] 1 AC 32.
Barker v Corus UK Ltd [2006] UKHL 20, [2006] 2 WLR 1027.
Geddis v Proprietors of Bann Reservoir (1878) 3 App Cas 430.
M. Lee/ R. Burrell (supra fn. 48) 530.
See further A. Mullis/ K. Oliphant, Torts (3rd ed. 2003) 284–285. The matter cannot, however, be regarded as free from doubt, and the contrary view is asserted by_AEBC, (supra fn. 4) §267.
See further Perry v Kendricks Transport Ltd [1956] 1 WLR 85.
See, e.g., Nichols v Marsland (1876) 2 Ex D 1.
See (supra fn. 10) no. 37 above. It is not necessary for the purposes of this report to advert to the special issues thrown up by cases of mental injury.
For examples of recovery ofpure economic loss, see Rose v Miles (1815) 4 M&S 101 (public nuisance); Andreae v Selfridge & Co Ltd [1938] Ch 1 (private nuisance).
Supreme Court Act 1981, sec. 50; Shelfer v City of London Electric Lighting Co [1895] 1 Ch 287.
See Hoffman v Monsanto [2005] 7 WWR 665 at [133].
Spartan Steel Ltd v Martin & Co (Contractors) Ltd [1973] QB 27.
CCzarnikow Ltd v Koufos [1969] AC 350.
H Parsons (Livestock) Ltd v Uttley, Ingham & Co Ltd [1978] QB 791.
Cf. Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex Ch 341.
DEFRA (supra fn. 10) §146.
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Oliphant, K. (2008). Economic Loss Caused by GMOs in the United Kingdom: England & Wales. In: Koch, B.A. (eds) Economic Loss Caused by Genetically Modified Organisms. Tort and Insurance Law, vol 24. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-77988-0_32
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