Abstract
My starting point is an observation of the great Canadian judge and jurist, Justice Allen Linden, a longstanding enthusiast of no-fault compensation. “[N]o-fault,” he wrote, “means different things to different people.”1 It is, in fact, a term applied to a variety of alternatives to compensation by way of traditional, private law processes, not a unitary phenomenon. A major theme of this paper is that the shape no-fault has taken in different contexts has been dependent upon the social problem it was designed to solve. Yet it is still possible to find enough commonality in the different schemes that have emerged to make no-fault in the common law a worthy subject of study in its own right.
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A.M. Linden, Faulty No-Fault: A Critique of the Ontario Law Reform Commission Report on Motor Vehicle Accident Compensation, (1975) 13 Osgoode Hall L. J. 449, 449.
See, e.g., H. Butterfield, The Whig Interpretation of History (1931).
L.M. Friedman/J. Ladinsky, Social Change and the Law of Industrial Accidents, (1957) 67 Colum. L. Rev. 50.
For the British history, see works noted in fn. 17 below. Brief accounts of workers’ compensation in other jurisdictions may be found in Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injury (Chairman: Lord Pearson), Report, Cmnd 7054 (1978) [hereafter, “Pearson Report”], vol. 3: Overseas Systems of Compensation.
See generally Industry Commission, Workers’ Compensation in Australia (1994).
Considered in prospect by S.R. Weaver, The Ontario Workmen’s Compensation Bill (1913) 21 Journal of Political Economy 752.
W.C. Fisher, The Field of Workmen’s Compensation in the United States, (1915) 5 American Economic Review 221, 221. For further historical background, see R. Asher, Failure and Fulfillment: Agitation for Employers’ Liability Legislation and the Origins of Workmen’s Compensation in New York State, 1876–1910 (1983) 24 Labor History 198, P.B. Keating, Historical Origins of Workmen’s Compensation Laws in the United States: Implementing the European Social Insurance Idea, (2001) 11 Kansas Journal of Law and Public Policy 279 and J.F. Witt, The Transformation of Work and the Law of Workplace Accidents, 1842–1910, (1999) 107 Yale L.J. 1467.
Ives v South Buffalo Railway Co (1911) 201 NY 17, 94 NE 431.
New York Central Railroad v White (1917) 243 US 188.
W.C. Fisher, American Experience with Workmen’s Compensation (1920) 10 American Economic Review 18.
See W.S. Malone, The Mississippi Workmen’s Compensation Act in Prospect, (1949) 20 Miss. L.J. 137.
For general historical surveys, see A. Larson, The Nature and Origins of Workmen’s Compensation, (1952) 37 Cornell L.Q. 233, F.B. Power/E.W. Shows, A Review of Workers’’ Compensation: The Search for an Optimal Policy (1989) 8 Journal of Insurance Regulation 176, and P.V. Fishback/S.E. Kantor, A Prelude to the Welfare State: The Origins of Workers’ Compensation (2000). Current information about state laws can be obtained from the website of the Department of Labor’s Office of Workers’ Compensation Programs: <http://www.dol.gov/esa/regs/statutes/owcp/stwclaw/stwc law.htm.>
Industry Commission (fn. 6) 34.
Industry Commission (fn. 6) 36.
National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) Act 1946. See generally R. Lewis, Compensation for Industrial Injury: A Guide to the Revised Scheme of Benefits for Work Accidents and Diseases (1987).
The account below is drawn largely from P.W.J. Bartrip/S. Berman, The Wounded Soldiers of Industry (1983), with additional material from P.W.J. Bartrip, Workmen’s Compensation in Twentieth Century Britain: Law, History and Social Policy (1987), D. Hanes, The First British Workmen’s Compensation Act 1897 (1968), and V.M. Lester, The Employers’ Liability/Workmen’s Compensation Debate of the 1890s Revisited (2001) 44 Historical Journal 471.
(1837) 3 Meeson & Welsby 1, 150 E.R. 1030.
The phrase appears to have been William Prosser’s: see Book Review (1941) 26 Minnesota L. Rev. 137, 138. See now W.P. Keeton et al., Prosser & Keaton on Torts (5th edn. 1984) 569.
(1842) 45 Mass 49, 57.
Bartonshill Coal Co v Reid (1858) 3 Macq 266 (Sco), 284.
This was the effect of the Court of Appeal’s decision in Smith v Charles Baker & Sons [1891] A.C. 325, following Thomas v Quartermaine (1887) 18 Q.B.D. 685.
Smith v Charles Baker & Sons [1891] A.C. 325.
Bartonshill Coal Co v Reid (1858) 3 Macq. 266 (Sco).
Wilson v Merry & Cunningham (1868) L.R. 1 Sc. & Div. 326.
Bartrip/Burman (fn. 17) 55–63.
Ibid., 96.
Ibid., 16–17.
Ibid., 139–145.
Bartrip (fn. 17) 8.
Ibid.
Bartrip/Berman (fn. 17) 189.
Ibid., 192.
Bartrip (fn. 17) 9. See further W.C. Mallalieu, Joseph Chamberlain and Workmen’s Compensation, (1950) 10 Journal of Economic History 45.
See generally the works cited in fn. 17 above.
Bartrip (fn. 17) 10.
Ibid., 11.
Workmen’s Compensation Act 1906. See Bartrip (fn. 17) 47–54.
See, in addition to the works cited below, A. Bale, The Enactment of the State Workers’ Compensation Laws in American Legal Studies, (1989) 13 Legal Studies Forum 49, R. Lubove, Workmen’s Compensation and the Prerogatives of Voluntarism (1967) 8 Labor History 254, and R.F. Wesser, Conflict and Compromise: The Workmen’s Compensation Movement in New York, 1890s–1913 (1971) 12 Labor History 345.
See, e.g., W.S. Nichols, An Argument Against Liability (1911) 38 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 159.
See, e.g., J. Weinstein, Big Business and the Origins of Workmen’s Compensation, (1967) 8 Labor History 156, reprinted with amendments in J. Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State: 1900–1918 (1968). In the latter work, at p. 3, the author writes explicitly of the “loose hegemony over the political structure” of the leaders of the large corporations.
Bartrip (fn. 17) 9–10.
Ibid., 12.
W. Beveridge, Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942) 41.
See generally N.J. Wikeley/A.I. Ogus, Wikeley, Ogus & Barendt’s The Law of Social Security (5th edn. 2002).
The earliest proposal I have so far found is by the aptly-named E.C. Carman, Is a Motor Vehicle Accident Compensation Act Advisable? (1919) 4 Minn. L. Rev. 1. See also R.S. Marx, Compulsory Compensation Insurance, (1925) 25 Colum. L. Rev. 164, and W.H. Elsbree/H.C. Roberts, Compulsory Insurance Against Motor Vehicle Accidents, (1928) 76 U. Pa. L. Rev. 690, 694 ff.
See, e.g., A.A. Ballantine, A Compensation Plan for Railway Accident Claims, (1916) 29 Harv. L. Rev. 705. Compensation clauses were a feature of a number of the private acts under which the railroad companies were incorporated. In Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Rly Co v Zernecke (1902) 183 US 582, the US Supreme Court upheld their constitutionality.
Committee to Study Compensation for Automobile Accidents (chairman: A.A. Ballantine), Report to the Columbia University Council for Research in the Social Sciences (1932), considered by Y.B. Smith/A.J. Lilly/N.T. Dowling, Compensation for Automobile Accidents: A Symposium, (1932) 32 Colum. L. Rev. 785. See further A.A. Ballantine, Compensation for Automobile Accidents, 18 A.B.A. J. 221 (1932).
F.P. Grad, Recent Developments in Automobile Accident Compensation, (1950) 50 Colum. L. Rev. 300, 319.
See, e.g., G. Williams, The Aims of the Law of Tort, (1951) C.L.P. 137, 173–4; R.S. Marx, Compensation Insurance for Automobile Accident Victims: The Case for Compulsory Automobile Compensation Insurance, (1954) 15 Ohio St. L.J. 134; J.M. Kaye/J.W. Breslow, Legislation to Replace Adjudication—Planned Compensation for Auto Accident Victims, (1955) 35 B.U. L. Rev. 488; A. Suzman, Motor-Vehicle Accidents: Proposals for a System of Collective Responsibility Irrespective of Fault, (1955) 72 S. African L.J. 374; A.L. Plummer, The Uncompensated Automobile Accident Victim, (1957) 24 Ins. Counsel J. 78; and F. James, The Columbia Study of Compensation for Automobile Accidents: An Unanswered Challenge, (1959) 59 Colum. L. Rev. 408.
R.E. Keaton/J. O’Connell, Basic Protection for the Traffic Victim: A Blueprint for Reforming Automobile Insurance (1965). Chs. 5 and 6 had previously been published as R.E. Keeton/J. O’Connell, Basic Protection—A Proposal for Improving Automobile Claims Systems, (1964) 78 Harv. L. Rev. 329.
See, e.g., W.J. Blum/H. Kalven Jr., Public Law Perspectives on a Private Law Problem—Auto Compensation Plans (1964) 31 U. Chi. L. Rev. 641; W.J. Blum/H. Kalven Jr., The Empty Cabinet of Dr. Calabresi: Auto Accidents and General Deterrence (1967) 34 U. Chi. L. Rev. 239.
United States Department of Transportation, Compensating Auto Accident Victims (1985).
See Committee on Absolute Liability, Report of Committee on Absolute Liability (1963), D R Harris, The Law of Torts in the Welfare State, [1963] NZLJ 171, and A. Szakats, Compensation for Road Accidents: A Study on the Question of Absolute Liability and Social Insurance (1968).
D.W. Elliott/H. Street, Road Accidents (1968). See also Justice, No Fault on the Roads (1974).
Pearson Report (fn. 5). See further F. Trindade, A No-Fault Scheme for Road Accident Victims in the United Kingdom, (1980) 96 LQR 581 and R. Lewis, No Fault Compensation For Victims Of Road Accidents: Can It Be Justified? (1981) 10 Journal of Social Policy 161.
Civil Justice Review, Report of the Review Body on Civil Justice, Cm 354 (1988).
Lord Chancellor’s Department, Compensation for Road Accidents: A Consultation Paper (1991).
Following B. Chapman/M.J. Trebilcock, Making Hard Social Choices: Lessons from the Auto Accident Compensation Debate (1992) 44 Rutgers L. Rev. 797, 809–12.
See generally J. Green, Automobile Accident Insurance Legislation in the Province of Saskatchewan, (1949) 31 J. Comp. Legis. & Int’l L. 3d ser. 39, W.P. Rokes, The Saskatchewan Plan, (1962) 29 Journal of Insurance 373, M. Silver, A Survey of Views on Motor Vehicle Accident Compensation and the Concept of Fault, (1963) 2 Osgoode Hall L. J. 452, 458–460, T. Wakeling, The Saskatchewan Government Insurance Office and the Automobile Accident Victim, (1977) 41 Sask. L. Rev. 303, and Keaton/O’Connell (fn. 58) 140–148.
Green (fn. 68) 40.
J.C. McRuer, The Motor Car and the Law, (1966) 4 Osgoode Hall L. J. 54, 72.
Keaton/O’Connell (fn. 55) 140n.
Ibid., 143.
See Plummer (fn. 54) 80.
A.A. Ehrenzweig, “Full Aid” Insurance for the Traffic Victim (1954); abridged version published at (1955) 43 Calif. L. Rev. 1.
L. Green, Traffic Victims: Tort Law and Insurance (1958).
Keaton/O’Connell (fn. 55). This convenient summary of the common law’s deficiencies is taken from the dust-jacket.
A.F. Conard et al., Automobile Accident Costs and Payments: Studies in the Economics of Injury Reparation (1964).
Keaton/O’Connell (fn. 55) 42–49
Ibid., 67.
Ibid., 5–10 and 273–295.
Ibid., 268.
Ibid., 295.
Ibid., 269–270.
See generally C.R. Cole et al., A Review of the Current and Historical No-Fault Environment, (2004) 23 J. Insurance Reg. 3, D.S. Greer, No-Fault Compensation for Personal Injuries Arising From Road Accidents: Developments in the United States (1992) 21 Anglo-Am. L. Rev. 221, E. Nordman, The History of No-Fault Auto Insurance, (1998) 16 J. Insurance Regulation 457, and Pearson Report (fn. 5) vol. 3, §§ 237–317. Up-to-date information may be found on the Insurance Information Institute website at <http://www.iii.org/media/hottopics/insurance/nofault/>.
Keaton/O’Connell (fn. 55), chapter 7. Chapter 8 consists of comments on the proposed statute.
See R.L. Bombaugh, The Department of Transportation’s Auto Insurance Study and Auto Accident Compensation Reform, 71 Colum. L. Rev. 207 (1971)
See Nordman (fn. 84) 461–2.
E. Keaton/J. O’Connell, Basic Protection Automobile Insurance, 1967 U. Ill. L.F. 400 (1967) 406.
J.G. Fleming, The American Tort Process (1988) 167.
Ibid., 153–4.
Ibid., 167n.
Ibid., 171. For an early survey, see R.E. Keeton, No-Fault Insurance: A Status Report, (1971) 51 Neb. L. Rev. 183.
G.T. Schwartz, Auto No-Fault and First-Party Insurance: Advantages and Problems, (2000) 73 S. Cal. L. Rev. 611, 612.
Fleming (fn. 89) 171–172
Keeton (fn. 92) 190.
United States Department of Transport (fn. 59).
As summarised by J. O’Connell, No-Fault Auto Insurance: Back by Popular (Market) Demand? (1989) 26 San Diego L. Rev. 993, 994.
J. O’Connell/R.H. Joost, Giving Motorists a Choice between Fault and No-Fault Insurance (1986) 72 Va. L. Rev. 61, 71–72.
W.C. George, Whither No-Fault in California: Is There Salvation after Proposition 103?, (1989) 26 San Diego L. Rev. 1065.
In fact, the Kentucky scheme had been implemented from the first on an elective (opt-out) basis in 1975: see R.P. Moore/D.W. Rutledge, Kentucky No-Fault: An Analysis and Interpretation, (1976) 65 Ky L.J. 466.
O’Connell/Joost (fn. 98); J. O’Connell, No-Fault Auto Insurance: Back by Popular (Market) Demand? (1989) 26 San Diego L. Rev. 993; R.H. Joost, Choosing the Best Auto Insurance Choice System (1989) 26 San Diego L. Rev. 1033; J. O’Connell/R.H. Joost, A Model Bill Allowing Choice between Auto Insurance Payable with and without Regard to Fault (1990) 51 Ohio St. L.J. 947; J. O’Connell et al., The Costs of Consumer Choice for Auto Insurance in States without No-Fault Insurance, 54 Md. L. Rev. 281 (1995). O’Connell had previously advocated elective no-fault in other cases of accidental injury: J. O’Connell, Elective No-Fault Insurance for Many Kinds of Accidents: A Proposal and an Economic Analysis (1974) 42 Tenn. L. Rev. 145. For criticism of the O’Connell-Joost plan, see S.D. Sugarman, Foreword: Choosing among Systems of Auto Insurance for Personal Injury (1989) 26 San Diego L. Rev. 977
Cole et al. (fn. 84) 7 (table).
Ibid., 18.
For an overview, see Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 3, §§ 74–120, and A.E. Kleffner)/J.T. Schmit, Automobile Insurance in Canada: A Comparison of Liability Systems, (1999) 18 J. Insurance Regulation 34.
See, generally, A.M. Linden, Automobile Accident Compensation in Ontario — A System in Transition, (1967) 15 Am. J. Comp. L. 301, Linden, (1975) 13 Osgoode Hall L. J. 449 ff., and Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 3, §§ 74–98 and 110–5.
Ontario Law Reform Commission, Report on Motor Vehicle Accident Compensation (1974).
See, e.g., Linden, (1967) 15 Am. J. Comp. L. 301.
Linden, (1975) 13 Osgoode Hall L. J., 449.
Ibid., 454.
Ibid., 458. See also A.M. Linden, Auto Accident Compensation in Alberta: Toward Peaceful Coexistence, (1968) 6 Alta. L. Rev. 219.
A.E. Kleffner/J.T. Schmit (fn. 105) 50.
See generally C. Belleau, L’Experience de l’Assurance Automobile Sans Egard a la Responsabilité au Quebec (1988) 37 U.N.B.L.J. 152.
J. O’Connell/C. Tenser, North America’s Most Ambitious No-Fault Law: Quebec’s Auto Insurance Act, 24 San Diego L. Rev. 917 (1987).
Comité d’étude sur l’assurance-automobile, Rapport du Comité d’ étude sur l’assurance-automobile (1974) (Rapport Gauvin). See further see Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 3, §§ 100–09.
C. Belleau L’Experience de l’Assurance Automobile Sans Egard a la Responsabilité au Quebec (1988) 37 U.N.B.L.J. (fn. 113) 156.
L’Experience de l’Assurance Automobile Sans Egard a la Responsabilité au Quebec (1988) 37 U.N.B.L.J. Ibid., 154 and 158.
See, e.g., Home Office Working Party on Compensation for Victims of Crimes of Violence, Compensation for Victims of Crimes of Violence, Report, Cmnd. 1406 (1961) 4.
Reprinted as M. Fry, Justice for Victims, (1959) 8 J. Pub. L. 191.
Ibid., 192.
Ibid.
Ibid., 193.
See G. Williams, Comment on the Proposal, (1959) 8 J. Pub. L. 194 and the Parliamentary exchanges extracted at (1959) 8 J. Pub. L. 195–7.
Home Office (fn. 118).
Ibid., 6.
Ibid.
Ibid., § 16.
Ibid., § 17.
Ibid.
Ibid., § 18.
Ibid., § 145.
Justice, Report on Compensation for the Victims of Crimes of Violence (1962).
E.g. E. Griew, Compensation for Victims of Crimes of Violence, [1962] Crim. L.R. 801.
Justice (fn. 132) § 6.
Ibid., § 7. On the “wasted” administrative cost of large numbers of individual but identical policies of insurance against such a remote risk, see D.J. Harris, Compensation for Victims of Crimes of Violence: A Comparison of the New Zealand and British Schemes, in: J.F. Northey (ed.), The A.G. Davis Essays in Law (1965) 50–51.
Justice (fn. 132) vii. See further National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations, Victims of Violence: A Report on Compensation for Injuries through Crimes of Violence (1962).
Justice (fn. 132) § 28.
Ibid., § 40.
HC Debs., vol. 697, cols. 89–94 WA (24 June 1964). The announcement was preceded by a White Paper, Compensation for Victims of Crimes of Violence, Cmnd 2323 (1964).
See generally A. Samuels, Compensation for Criminal Injuries in Britain, (1967) 17 U. Toronto L.J. 20.
For example, following recommendations in Interdepartmental Working Party, Review of the Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme: Report of an Interdepartmental Working Party (1978), the scheme was amended to introduce: powers to compensate victims of domestic violence and to reopen cases where there had been a marked deterioration in the victim’s medical condition following the making of an award; time limits for the submission of claims and of requests for hearings; and an increase in the Criminal Injuries Compensation Board’s powers to administer awards where that would be in the victim’s interest. [Source?]
Following a recommendation in Interdepartmental Working Party, Criminal Injuries Compensation: A Statutory Scheme: Report of an Interdepartmental Working Party (1986). Provisions to establish a statutory scheme were included in a Criminal Justice Bill in 1987, but were removed before the Bill was passed later the same year.
Following its earlier White Paper: Home Office, Compensating Victims of Violent Crime: Changes to the Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme, Cm 2434 (1993).
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Fire Brigades Union [1995] 2 A.C. 513.
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1995. See further D. Miers, State Compensation for Criminal Injuries (1997).
Following Home Office, Compensation for Victims of Violent Crime: Possible Changes to the Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme (1999). Additional information is available on the CICA website: <http://www.cica.gov.uk>.
D. Miers, Rebuilding Lives: operation and policy issues in the compensation of victims of violent and terrorist crimes, [2006] Crim. L.R. 695, 705.
Ibid., 710.
Victims of Violent International Crime (Arrangements for Compensation) (European Communitites) Regulations 2005 (SI 2005 No. 3396).
Explanatory memorandum to the Victims of Violent International Crime (Arrangements for Compensation) (European Communitites) Regulations 2005, § 7.4.
For further discussion of the policy issues highlighted by the events, see Miers (fn. 148).
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963, considered by J. Cameron, Compensation for Victims of Crime: The New Zealand Experiment, (1963) 12 J. Pub. L. 367.
New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 1963: 1865, quoted by I. Freckleton, Compensation for Victims of Crime: Health and Financial Considerations, paper submitted for the XIth International Symposium on Victimology, 13–18 July 2003, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Cameron (fn. 153) 370.
Ibid., 369–70.
Ibid., 374.
See Queenstown Lakes District Court v. Palmer [1999] 1 N.Z.L.R. 549 and Van Soest v Residual Health Management Unit [2000] 1 N.Z.L.R. 179.
However, there may still be liability to exemplary damages: see Donselaar v Donselaar [1982] 1 N.Z.L.R. 97.
See R.E. Meiners, Victim Compensation: Economic, Legal, and Political Aspects (1978) 25–29.
See generally Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 3, § § 771–4, M.D. Kirby, Compensation for victims of criminal injuries, (1981) 7 Commonwealth Law Bulletin 1533, and I. Freckleton (fn. 155).
J. Eremko, Compensation for Criminal Injuries in Saskatchewan, (1968) 33 Sask. L. Rev. 41. See generally Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 3, §§ 140–2, and P. Burns, Criminal Injuries Compensation: Social Remedy or Political Palliative for Victims of Crime (1980).
For general overviews, see G. Palmer, Compensation for Incapacity: A Study of Law and Social Change in New Zealand and Australia (1979), T.G. Ison, Accident Compensation: A Commentary on the New Zealand Scheme (1980), G. Palmer, ‘New Zealand’s Accident Compensation Scheme: 20 Years on’ (1994) 44 U. Toronto L.J. 223, I. Campbell, Compensation for Personal Injury in New Zealand: Its Rise and Fall (1995), and S. Todd, ‘Privatization of Accident Compensation: Policy and Politics in New Zealand’ (2000) 39 Washburn L.J. 404. Additional information is available from the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) website: <http://www.acc.co.nz>.
Royal Commission of Inquiry into Compensation for Personal Injury (Chairman: Mr Justice Woodhouse), Compensation for Personal Injury in New Zealand: Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry (1967) [hereafter, “Woodhouse Report”], § 34
Ibid., § 1; see further § 4 f.
Echoing T.G. Ison, The Forensic Lottery (1967), which Woodhouse had seen in draft prior to the publication of his Report, but after he had substantially determined its form.
Woodhouse Report (fn. 168) §§ 1, 239–40.
Ibid., Part 5.
Ibid., § 1.
Ibid., § 55.
Ibid., § 56.
Ibid., § 4.
Ibid., § 6.
Ibid., § 7.
Ibid., ch. 26. Drivers might therefore be expected to contribute twice: both as owners of motor vehicles and as licence-holders.
P. McKenzie, The Compensation Scheme No One Asked For: The Origins of ACC in New Zealand, (2003) 34 V.U.W.L.R. 193.
McKenzie (fn. 181) 206.
Sir Alfred North in “The Woodhouse Report, a Panel Discussion” [1969] NZLJ 297.
M. McClure, A Decade of Confusion: The Differing Directions of Social Security and Accident Compensation 1969–1979, (2003) 34 V.U.W.L.R. 269.
Accident Compensation Amendment Act (No. 2) 1973. As G. Palmer, Compensation for Incapacity (fn. 166) appendix 1 clearly demonstrates, the scheme introduced in fact differed from the Woodhouse model in numerous specifics.
See generally A.A.P. Willy, The Accident Compensation Act and Recovery for Losses Arising from Personal Injury and Death by Accident, (1975) 6 N.Z.U.L.R. 250.
Officials Committee, Review by Officials Committee of the Accident Compensation Scheme (1986) iii.
See, e.g., Law Commission (New Zealand), Personal Injury: Prevention and Recovery, Report No. 4 (1988) § 16.
Accident Compensation Corporation, Sources of Cost Creep (1987).
W.F. Birch, Accident Compensation: A Fairer Scheme (1991).
See generally Todd (fn. 166), and D. Caygill, 1990s: Decade of Change, (2003) 34 V.U.W.L.R. 395.
See generally Palmer (fn. 166) chs. 10–12; H. Luntz, Looking Back at Accident Compensation: An Australian Perspective, (2003) 34 V.U.W.L.R. 279.
H. Luntz (fn. 198) 281.
Australian National Rehabilitation and Compensation Committee of Inquiry, Compensation and Rehabilitation in Australia: Report of the National Committee of Inquiry (1974).
For consideration of particular differences, see Luntz (fn. 198) 284 f.
Ibid., 285–288.
New South Wales Law Reform Commission, Accident Compensation: A Transport Accidents Scheme for New South Wales (1984).
See further Luntz (fn. 198) 190–191.
See, e.g., D. Harris et al., Compensation and Support for Illness and Injury (1984), S.D. Sugarman, “Doing Away with Tort Law”, 73 Cal. L. Rev. 555 (1985), and his subsequent book, Doing Away with Personal Injury Law (1989), and T. Ison, Compensation Systems for Injury and Disease: The Policy Options (1994). Elective no-fault for all accidents has been recommended by J. O’Connell, No-Fault Insurance for All Accidents, (1975) 13 Osgoode Hall L. J. 461, criticised by R.A. Posner, A Comment on No-Fault Insurance for All Accidents, (1975) 13 Osgoode Hall L. J. 471.
Pearson Report (fn. 5). For critical analysis, see A.L. Ogus/P. Corfield/D.R. Harris, Pearson: Principled Reform or Political Compromise?, (1978) 7 I.L.J. 143, and D.K. Allen/C.J. Bourn/J. Holyoak, Accident Compensation After Pearson (1979).
See L.M. Friedman, Civil Wrongs: Personal Injury Law in the Late 19th Century, (1987) American Bar Foundation Research Journal 351.
See especially Home Office White Paper, Penal Practice in a Changing Society: Aspects of Future Development (England and Wales), Cmnd 645 (1959).
Pearson Report (fn. 5), vol. 1, § 34.
Cf. L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E.M. Anscombe (1953) §§ 66–67.
P. Cane, Atiyah’s Accidents, Compensation and the Law (6th edn. 1999) 399.
Woodhouse Report (fn. 168) § 6.
Cane (fn. 213) 399.
For elaboration of the distinction between social security and social insurance, see A.M. Rees, T.H. Marshall’s Social Policy (5th edn. 1985) 106–7.
See generally P.S. Atiyah, The Damages Lottery (1997) 117–34 and 184.
Association of British Insurers, UK Insurance — Key Facts 2005 (2005) 4.
Cf. the illuminating comparison of private and social insurance in Rees (fn. 217) ch. 4.
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Oliphant, K. (2007). Landmarks of No-Fault in the Common Law. In: van Boom, W.H., Faure, M. (eds) Shifts in Compensation Between Private and Public Systems. Tort and Insurance Law, vol 22. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-71554-3_3
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