Summary
Recently, much progress has been made in defining the signal transduction pathways mediating the cellular response to genotoxic stress. Multiple pathways involving several distinct MAP kinases (ERK, JNK/SAPK, and p38/HOG1) as well as the tumor suppressor protein p53 contribute to the response; the various pathways being differentially activated by particular genotoxic agents. Although both DNA damage and extranuclear events are important in initiating the response, recent evidence suggests the response is controlled primarily through events occurring at the plasma membrane, overlapping significantly with those important in initiating mitogenic responses. Attenuation of the responses appears to be largely controlled through feedback mechanisms involving gene products produced during the activation process.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abdel-Hafiz, H.A.M., Heasley, L.E., Kyriakis, J.M., Avruch, J., Kroll, D.J., Johnson, G.L. and Hoeffler, J.P. (1992) Activating transcription factor-2 DNA-binding activity is stimulated by phosphorylation catalyzed by p42 and p54 microtubule-associated protein kinases. Mol. Endocrinol 16: 2079–2089.
Anderson, C.W. (1993) DNA damage and the DNA-activated protein kinase. TIBS 18: 433 – 437.
Avruch, J., Zhang, X.F. and Kyriakis, J.M. (1994) Raf meets Ras: completing the framework of a signal transduction pathway. Trends in Biochem. Sci. 19: 279–283.
Bischoff, J.R., Friedman, P.N., Marshak, D.R., Prives, C. and Beach, D. (1990) Human p53 isphosphorylated by p60-cdc2.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:4766–4770.
Blattner, C., Knebel, A., Radler-Pohl, A., Sachsenmaier, C., Herrlich, P. and Rahms- dorf, H.J.(1994) DNA damaging agents and growth factors induced changes in the program of expressed gene products through common routes. Environ. Mol. Mutagen 24:3–10.
Caelles, C., Heimberg, A. and Karin, M. (1994) p53-dependent apoptosis in the absence of transcriptional activation of p53-target genes. Nature 370: 220–223.
Cano, E., Hazzalin, C.A. and Mahadevan, L.C. (1994) Anisomycin-activated protein kinases p45 and p55 but not mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK-1 and -2 are implicated in the induction of c-fos and c-jun. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 7252–7362.
Cano, E. and Mahadevan, L.C. (1995) Parallel signal processing among mammalian MAPKs. Trends in Biochem. Sci. 20: 117–122.
Chen, C.Y., Oliner, J.D., Zhan, Q., Fornace, Jr., A.J., Vogelstein, B. and Kastan, M.B. (1994) Interactions between p53 and MDM2 in a mammalian cell cycle checkpoint pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 2684–2688.
Coso, O.A., Chiariello, M., Yu, J.C., Teramoto, H., Crespo, P., Xu, N., Miki, T. and Gutkind, J.S. (1995) The small GTP-binding proteins Racl and Cdc42 regulate the activity of the JNK/ SAPK Signaling Pathway. Cell 81: 1137–1146.
Davis, R.J. (1993) The mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathwayJ. Biol. Chem268:1553–14556.
Deffie, A., Wu, H., Reinke, V and Lozano, G. (1993) The tumour suppressor p53 regulates its own transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13:3415–3423.
Derijard, B., Hibi, M., Wu, I.-H., Barrett, T., Su, B., Deng, T., Karin, M. and Davis, R.J. (1994) JNK1: a protein kinase stimulated by UV light and Ha-Ras that binds and phosphorylates the c-Jun activation domain. Cell 76: 1025–1037.
Derijard, B., Raingeaud, J., Barrett, T., Wu, I.-H., Han, J., Ulevitch, R.J. and Davis, R.J. (1995) Independent human MAP kinase signal transduction pathways defined by MEK and MKK isoforms. Science 267: 6822013–685.
Devary, Y., Gottlieb, R.A., Smeal, T. and Karin, M. (1992) The mammalian ultraviolet responseis triggered by activation of Src tyrosine kinases. Cell 71: 1081–1091.
Devary, Y., Rosette, C., DiDonato, J.A. and Karin, M. (1993) NF-tcB activation by ultraviolet light not dependent on a nuclear signal. Science 261: 1442–1445.
El-Deiry, W.S., Tokino, T., Velculescu, VE., Levy, D.B., Parson, R., Trent, J.M., Lin, D., Mercer, W.E., Kinzler, K.W. and Vogelstein, B. (1993) WAF1, a potential mediator of p53 tumor suppression. Cell 75: 817–825.
Engelberg, D., Klein, C., Martinetto, H., Struhl, K. and Karin, M. (1994) The UV response involving the Ras signaling pathway and AP-1 transcription factors is conserved between yeast and mammals. Cell 11: 381–390.
Fan, S., Smith, M.L., Rivet, II, D.J., Duba, D., Zhan, Q., Kohn, K.W., Fornace, Jr., A.J. and O’Connor, P.M. (1995) Disruption of p53 function sensitizes breast cancer MCF-7 cells to cisplatin and pentoxifylline. Cancer Res. 55: 1649–1654.
Finlay, C.A. (1993) The MDM-2 oncogene can overcome wild-type p53 suppression of transformed cell growth. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13: 301–306.
Fornace, J., A.J. (1992) Mammalian genes induced by radiation; activation of genes associated with growth control. Annual. Rev. Genetics 26: 507–526.
Gibbs, S., Lohman, F., Teabel, W., vande Putte, P. and Backendort, C. (1990) Characterization of the human spr2 promoter: induction after UV irradiation or TPA treatment and regulation during differentiation of cultured keratinocytes. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 4401–4407.
Gille, H., Sharrocks, A.D. and Shaw, P.E. (1992) Phosphorylation of transcription factor p62TCF by MAP kinase stimulates ternary complex formation at c-fos promoter. Nature 358: 414–417.
Gupta, S., Campbell, D., Derijard, B. and Davis, R.J. (1995) Transcription factor ATF2 regulation by the JNK signal transduction pathway. Science 267: 389–393.
Guyton, K.Z., Liu, Y., Gorospe, M., Xu, Q. and Holbrook, N.J. (1996) Activation of mitogen- activated protein kinase by H202. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 4138–4142.
Hallahan, D.E., Spriggs, D.R., Beckett, M.A., Kufe, D.W. and Weichselbaum, R.R. (1989) Increased tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA after cellular exposure to ionizing radiation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86: 10104–10107.
Han, J., Lee, J.-D., Bibbs, L. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1994) A MAP kinase targeted by endotoxin and hyperosmolarity in mammalian cells. Science 265: 808–811.
Harper, J.W., Adami, G.R., Wei, N., Keyomarsi, K. and Elledge, S.J. (1993) The p21 Cdk-inter- acting protein Cipl is a potent inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Cell 75: 805–816.
Hartwell, L.H. and Kastan, M.B. (1994) Cell cycle control and cancer. Science 266: 1821–1828.
Herrlich, P., Sachsenmaier C., Radler-Pohl, A., Gebel, S., Blattner, C. and Rahmsdorf, H.J. (1994) The mammalian UV response: mechanism of DNA damage induced gene expression. Adv. Enzyme Regul. 34: 381–395.
Herrmann, C.P.E., Kraiss, S. and Montenarh, M. (1991) Protein kinase activity associated with immunopurified p53 protein. Oncogene 6: 877–884.
Herskowitz, I. (1995) MAP kinase pathways in yeast: for mating and more. Cell 80: 187–197.
Hibi, M., Lin, A., Smeal, T., Minden, A. and Karin, M. (1993) Identification of an oncoprotein- and UV-responsive protein kinase that bind and potentiate the c-Jun activation domain. Genes Dev. 7: 2135–2148.
Hill, C.S., Marais, R., John, S., Wynne, J., Dalton, S. and Treisman, R. (1993) Functional analysis of a growth factor-responsive transcription factor complex. Cell 73: 395–406.
Holbrook, N.J. and Fornace, A.J., Jr. (1991) Response to adversity: molecular control of gene activation following genotoxic stress. New Biologist 3: 825–833.
Ishibashi, T., Bottaro, D.P., Michieli, P., Kelley, C.A. and Aaronson, S.A. (1994) A novel dual specificity phosphate induced by serum stimulation and heat shock. J. Biol. Chem. 47: 29897–29902.
Jayaraman, L. and Prives, C. (1995) Activation of p53 sequence-specific DNA binding by short single strand of DNA requires the p53 C-terminus. Cell 81: 10231–11029.
Kastan, M.B., Onyekwere, O., Sidransky, D., Vogelstein, B. and Craig, R.W. (1991) Participation of p53 protein in the cellular response to DNA damage. Cancer Res. 51: 6304–6311.
Kastan, M.B., Zhan, Q., El-Deiry, W.S., Carrier, F., Jacks, T., Wlash, W.V., Plunkett, B.S., Vogelstein, B. and Fornace, A.J., Jr. (1992) A mammalian cell cycle checkpoint pathway utilizing p53 and GADD45 is defective in Ataxia-Telangiectasia. Cell 71: 587–597.
Keyse, S.M. and Emslie, E.A. (1992) Oxidative stress and heat shock induce a human gene encoding a protein tyrosine phosphatase. Nature 359: 644–647.
Kyriakis, J.M. Banerjee, P., Nikolakaki, E., Dai, T., Rubie, E.A., Ahmad, M.F., Avruch, J. and Woodgett, J.R. (1994) The stress-activated protein kinase subfamily of c-Jun kinasesNature 369: 156–160.
Kuerbitz, S.J., Plunkett, B.S., Walsh, W.V. and Kastan, M.B. (1992) Wild type p53 is a cell cycle checkpoint determinant following irradiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 7491 - 7495.
Lange-Carter, C.A., Pleiman, C.M., Gardner, A.M., Blumer, K.J. and Johnson, G.L. (1993) A divergence in the MAP kinase regulatory network defined by MEK kinase and Raf. Science 260: 315–319.
Lange-Carter, C.A. and Johnson, G.L. (1994) Ras-dependent growth factor regulation of MEK kinase in PC12 cells. Science 265: 1458–1461.
Lee, J.C., Laydon, J.T., McDonnell, PC., Gallagher, T.F., Kumar, S., Green, D., McNulty, D., Blumenthal, M.J., Heys, J.R., Landvatter, S.W., Strickler, J.E., McLaughlin, M.M., Siemens, I.R., Fisher, R.M., Livi, G.P, White, J.R., Adams J.L. and Young, PR. (1994) A protein kinase involved in the regulation of inflammatory cytokine biosynthesis. Nature 372: 739–800.
Lees-Miller, S.P, Sakaguchi, K., Ullrich, S.J., Appella, E. and Anderson, C.W. (1992) Human DNA-activated protein kinase phosphorylates serines 15 and 37 in the amino-terminal trans- activation domain of human p53. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12: 5041–5049.
Lin, A., Minden, A., Martinetto, H., Claret, F.X., Lange-Carter, C., Mercurio, F., Johnson, G.L. and Karin, M. (1995) Identification of a dual specificity kinase that activates the Jun kinases and p38-Mpk2. Science 268: 286–290.
Liu, Y., Gorospe, M., Yang, C. and Holbrook, N.J. (1995) Role of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase during the cellular response to genotoxic stress. Inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase activity and Ap-1-dependent gene activation. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 8377–8380.
Liu, Y., Gorospe, M., Yang, C. and Holbrook, N.J. (1995) Role of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase during the cellular response to genotoxic stress. Inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase activity and Ap-1-dependent gene activation. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 8377–8380.
Luethy, J.D. and Holbrook, N.J. (1992) Activation of the gaddl53 promoter by genotoxic agents; a rapid and specific response to DNA damage. Cancer Res. 52: 5–10.
Manser, E., Leung, T., Salihuddin, H., Zhao, Z. and Lim, L. (1994) A brain serine/threonine protein kinase activated by Cdc42 and Racl. Nature 367: 40–46.
Meek, D.W. (1994) Post-translational modification of p53. Semin. Cancer Biol. 5: 203–210.
Milne, D.M., Palmer, R.H., Campbell, D.G. and Meek, D.W. (1992) Phosphorylation of the p53 tumour suppressor protein at three N-terminal residues by a novel casein kinase I-like enzyme. Oncogene 7: 1361–1369.
Milne, D.M., Campbell, D.G., Caudwell, F.B. and Meek, D.W. (1994) Phosphorylation of the tumour suppressor protein p53 by mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 9253–9260.
Milne, D., Campbell, L.E., Campbell, D.G. and Meek, D.W. (1995) p53 is phosphorylated in vitro and in vivo by an ultraviolet radiation-induced protein kinase characteristic of the c-Jun Kinase, JNK1. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 5511–5518.
Minden, A., Lin, A., McMahon, M., Lange-Carter, C., Derijard, B., Davis, R.J., Johnson, G.L. and Karin, M. (1994) Differential activation of ERK and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinases by Raf-1 and MEKK. Science 266: 1719–1723.
Minden, A., Lin, A., Claret, F.X., Abo., A. and Karin, M. (1995) Selective activation of the JNK signaling cascade and c-Jun transcriptional activity by the small GTPases Rac and Cdc42Hs. Cell 81: 1147–1157.
Misra-Press, A., Rim, C.S., Yao, H., Roberson, M.S. and Stork, PJ.S. (1995) A novel mitogen- activated protein kinase phosphatase. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 14587–24596.
Miyashita, T. and Reed, J.C. (1995) Tumor suppressor p53 is a direct transcriptional activator of the human bax gene. Cell 80: 293–299.
Momand, J., Zambetti, G.P, Olson, D.C., George, D. and Levine, A.J. (1992) The MDM-2 oncogene product forms a complex with the p53 protein and inhibits p53 mediated transactiva- tion. Cell 69: 1237–1245.
Nelson, W.G. and Kastan, M.B. (1994) DNA strand breaks: the DNA template alterations that trigger p53-dependent DNA damage response pathways. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 1815–1823.
Oliner, J.D., Kinzler, K.W., Meltzer, PS., George, D.L. and Vogelstein, B. (1992) Amplification of a gene encoding a p53-associated protein in human sarcomas. Nature 358: 80–83.
Oliner, J.D., Pietenpol, J.A., Thiagalingam, S., Gyuris, J., Kinzler, K.W. and Vogelstein, B. (1993) Oncoprotein MDM2 conceals the activation domain of tumor suppressor p53. Nature 362: 857–860.
Oltvai, Z.N., Milliman, C.L. and Korsmeyer, S.J. (1993) Bcl-2 heterodimerizes in vivo with a conserved homolog, Bax, that accelerates programmed cell death. Cell 74: 609–619.
Pietenpol, J.A., Tokino, T., Thiagalingam, S., el-Deiry, W.S., Kinzler, K.W. and Vogelstein, B. (1994) Sequence-specific transcriptional activation is essential for growth suppression by p53. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 1998–2002.
Protic, M., Roilides, E., Levine, A.S. and Dixon, K. (1988) Enhancement of DNA repair capacity of mammalian cells by carcinogen treatment. Somat. Cell. Mol. Genet. 14: 351–357.
Raingeaud, J., Gupta, S., Rogers, J.S., Dickens, M., Han, J., Ulevitch, R.J. and Davis, R.J. (1995) Pro-inflammatory cytokines and environmental stress cause p38 mitogen-acitvated protein kinase activation by dual phosphorylation on tyrosine and threonine. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 7420–7426
Rouse, J., Cohen, P., Trigon, S., Morange, M., Alonso-Liamazares, A., Zamanillo, D., Hunt, T. and Nebrada, A.R. (1994) A novel kinase cascade triggered by stress and heat shock that stimulates MAPKAP kinase-2 and phosphorylation of the small heat shock proteins. Cell 78: 1027–1037.
Sachsenmaier, C., Radler-Pohl, A., Zinck, R., Nordheim, A., Herrlich, P. and Rahmsdorf, H.J. (1994) Involvement of growth factor receptors in the mammalian UVC response. Cell 78: 963–972.
Sanchez, I., Hughes, R.T., Mayer, B.J., Yee, K., Woodgett, J.R., Avruch, J., Kyriakis, J.M. and Zon, L.I. (1994) Role of SAPK/ERK kinase-1 in the stress-activated pathway regulating transcription factor c-Jun. Nature 372: 794–798.
Sang, N., Baldi, A. and Giordano, A. (1995) The roles of tumor suppressors pRB and p53 in cell proliferation and cancer. Mol. Cell. Differen. 3: 1–29.
Savitsky, K., Bar-Shira, A., Gilad, S., Rotman, G., Ziv, Y., Vanagaite, M., Pecker, I., Frydman, M., Harnik, R., Patanjali, S.R., Simmons, A., Clines, G.A., Sartiel, A., Gatti, R.A., Chessa, L., Sanal, O., Lavin, M.F., Jaspers, N.G.J., Malcom, A., Taylor, R., Arlett, C.F., Miki, T., Weissman, S.M., Lovett, M., Collins, F.S. and Shiloh, Y. (1995) A single ataxia telangiectasia gene with a product similar to pI-3 kinase. Science 268: 1749–1753.
Schieven, G.L. and Ledbetter, J.A. (1994) Activation of tyrosine kinase signal pathways by radiation and oxidative stress. Trends in Endocrinol. Metab. 5: 383–388.
Schreck, R., Rieber, P. and Baeuerle, PA. (1991) Reactive oxygen intermediates as apparently widely used messengers in the activation of the NF-k:B transcription factor and HIV-1. EMBOJ. 10: 2247–2258.
Selvakumaran, M., Lin, H.-K., Miyashita, T., Wang, H.G., Krajewski, S., Reed, J.C., Hoffman, B. and Liebermann, D. (1994) Immediate early up-regulation of bax expression by p53 but not TGF/n: a paradigm for distinct apoptotic pathways. Oncogene 9: 1791–1798.
Sluss, H.K., Barrett, T., Derijard, B. and Davis, R.J. (1994) Signal transduction by tumor necrosis factor mediated by JNK protein kinases. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 8376–8384.
Smith, M.L., Chen, I.T., Zhan, Q., O’Connor, P.M. and Fornace, Jr., A.J. (1995) Involvement of the p53 tumor suppressor in repair of UV-type DNA damage. Oncogene 10: 1053–1059.
Stein, B., Rahmsdorf, H.J., Steffen, A., Litfin, M. and Herrlich, P. (1989) UV-induced DNA damage is an intermediate step in UV-induced expression of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1, collagenase, c-fos, and metallothionein. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9: 5169–5181.
Stein, C.A. (1993) Suramin: a novel antineoplastic agent with multiple potential mechanisms of action. Cancer Res. 2239–2248.
Sun, H., Charles, C.H., Lau, L.F. and Tonks, N.K. (1993) MKP-1 (3CH134), an immediate early gene product, is a dual specificity phosphatase that dephosphorylates MAP kinase in vivo. Cell 75: 487–493.
Sun, H., Tonks, N.K. and Bar-Sagi, D. (1994) Inhibition of Ras-induced DNA synthesis by expression of the phosphatase MKP-1. Science 266: 285–288.
Valerie K. and Rosenberg, M. (1990) Chromatin structure implicated in activation of HIV-1 gene expression by ultraviolet light. New Biol. 2: 712–718.
Van Dam, H., Wilhelm, D., Herr, I.N., Steffen, A., Herrlich, P and Angel, P (1995) ATF-2 is preferentially activated by stress-activated protein kinases to mediate c-jun induction in response to genotoxic agents. EMBO J798–1811.
Ward, Y., Gupta, S., Jensen, P., Wartman, M., Davis, R.J. and Kelly, K. (1994) Control of MAP kinase activation by the mitogen-induced threonine/tyrosine phosphatase PAC1. Nature 367: 651–654.
Wu, X., Bayle, J.H., Olson,D. and Levine, A. J. (1993) The p53-mdm-2 autoregulatory feedback loop. Genes Dev. 7:1126–1132.
Yan, M., Dai, T., Deak, J.C., Kyriakis, J.M., Zon, L.I., Woodgett, J.R. and Templeton, D.J. (1994) Activation of stress-activated protein kinase by MEKKI phosphorylation of its activator SEK 1. Nature (London) 372:798–800.
Yarosh, D.B., Alas, L., Kibitel, J., O’Connor, A., Carrier, F. and Fornace, Jr., A.J. (1993) Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers in UV DNA induce release of soluble mediators that activate the human immunodeficiency virus promoter. J. Invest. Dermatol. 100: 190–194.
Zhan, Q., Carrier, F. and Fornace, Jr., A.J. (1993) Induction of cellular p53 activity by DNA damaging agents and growth arrest. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13:4242–4250.
Zhan, Q., Fan, S., Bae, I., Guillouf, C., Liebermann, D.A., O’Connor, PM. and Fornace, Jr., A.J. (1994) Induction of BAX by genotoxic stress in human cells correlates with normal p53 status and apoptosis. Oncogene 9:3743–3751.
Zhan, Q., El-Deiry, W., Bae, I., Alamo, Jr., I., Kastan, M.B., Vogelstein, B. and Fornace, Jr. A.J. (1995) Similarity of the DNA-damage responsiveness and growth suppressive properties of WAR to GADD45. Int. J. Oncology 6:937–946.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1996 Birkhäuser Verlag Basel/Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Holbrook, N.J., Liu, Y., Fornace, A.J. (1996). Signaling events controlling the molecular response to genotoxic stress. In: Feige, U., Yahara, I., Morimoto, R.I., Polla, B.S. (eds) Stress-Inducible Cellular Responses. EXS, vol 77. Birkhäuser Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-9088-5_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-9088-5_18
Publisher Name: Birkhäuser Basel
Print ISBN: 978-3-0348-9901-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-0348-9088-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive