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Novel Natural Products: Therapeutic Effects in Pain, Arthritis and Gastro-intestinal Diseases pp 155–178Cite as

Traditional Medicinal Oils Sourced from Birds: Anti-inflammatories and Potential Immunoregulants

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Part of the book series: Progress in Drug Research ((PDR,volume 70))

Abstract

This chapter describes medicinal oils of animal origin, used in Africa and Australasia both for nutritional and medicinally for treating pain and inflammation. Analytical studies of composition, bio-efficacy and their remarkable safety are described. For obtaining reproducible benefits, it is very important to introduce Quality Controls whenever possible. These should cover all stages of production, storage and certify the ‘truth in their advertising’: to help eliminate adulterated products and false claims for purity and potency.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Avis(Latin) = bird; pharmaco(n) (sing.), pharmaca(plural, Greek) = drug.

  2. 2.

    In this context consider the fermentation products associated with wine-making, brewing and baking. Or the essential microbial factors used to manufacture cheese, generate flavours and food additives e.g. from soya bean etc., as well as producing mainline antibiotics.

  3. 3.

    Udo Erasmus (1993) noted ‘the most easily destroyed oils are also nutritionally the most valuable’ and that ‘refined white fats and oils are nutritionally equivalent to refined white sugar and white flour’. But this may not be true for medicinal oils from animals and birds, which predominantly contain saturated or mono-unsaturated lipids (before fungal fermentation). 

  4. 4.

    As Erasmus also noted, “Healers and manufacturers head in opposite directions regarding oils”, adding the sensible nutritional advice, “Eat things that spoil, but eat them before they do”.

Abbreviations

AI:

Anti-inflammatory

AO:

Anti-oxidant

EO:

Emu oil

FAME:

Fatty acid methylester

GO:

Goanna oil

HPLC:

High pressure liquid chromatography

IS:

Immunosuppressant

MBO:

Mutton bird oil

OO:

Ostrich oil

NZ:

New Zealand

PUFA:

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

SSF:

Solid substrate fermentation

16:0:

Palmitic acid

18:1:

Oleic acid

18:2:

Linoleic acid

18:3:

α-linolenic acid

20:4:

Arachidonic acid

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Acknowledgments

We are much indebted to many bird farmers in Australia, Southern Africa, and New Zealand for providing oil/fat samples; to P. Lacey, W. Schaletzki (Vic) and P. Thompson (Qld) for advice on emu husbandry; to S. Birch (RSA) and Dr. D. Hayter (Zimbabwe) for advice on ostrich husbandry; to Dr. P. McGee, University of Sydney for identifying fungi; to Professor P. Ghosh for initiating scientific studies of emu pharmaca; and to Desley Butters for preparing the typescript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Meon Laboratories P/L, Bringelly, NSW, 2556, Australia

    Athol Turner

  2. Kalaya R&D Consortium, Salisbury, QLD, 4107, Australia

    Gerald Hancock

  3. Ocean Omegas, Lady Barron, Flinders Island, TAS, 7255, Australia

    John Wells

  4. Therapeutics Research Unit, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia

    Michael Whitehouse

  5. School of Medicine and School of Natural Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia

    Michael Whitehouse

Authors
  1. Athol Turner
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  3. John Wells
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  4. Michael Whitehouse
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Whitehouse .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Sheffield Hallam University Biomedical Res. Centre, Sheffield, United Kingdom

    K. D. Rainsford

  2. M/P Biomedical Consultants, Mill Valley, California, USA

    M. C. Powanda

  3. School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia

    M. W. Whitehouse

Appendices

Appendix A

Avian-sourced anti-inflammatories: some positive features and negative factors

Positive

Negative

Renewable resource

Sustainable(?)

Extended experience (safety, efficacy, etc.)

This ‘wisdom’ is often derided/ignored, having little profit value

Favourable attributes for rural production:

– Minimal energy input

– Minimal polluting output

– Marketable by-products, e.g. meat, hides, feathers

– low labour component

 

Extra-urban farming/sourcing

 

Suitable for countries with limited resources (energy, raw materials)

 

Low financial investment for production, i.e. fences rather than factories

Insufficient investment for rigorous clinical trials—if made obligatory

Scope for quality improvement in:

– Breeding (birds and symbiont microbes)

– Efficient feed stuffs

– Parasite control

– Product stability

– Pharmaco-availability, e.g. improving transdermal delivery

Erratic quality and lack of Quality controlsa

  1. aParticularly to eliminate bad/fake products being marketed as substitutes for genuine medicinal oils

Appendix B

A comparison of (i) anti-arthritic and gastroprotective (GP) activities with (ii) the safety of some bird and goanna oils in rats developing experimental arthritis

Doses = ≤2 ml/kg oil

Efficacy scores = asterisks (*), toxicity scores = + on a scale 0–4; as indications of a potential therapeutic index, i.e. a benefit: risk ratio to be derived here as anti-arthritic/pathogenic scores, i.e. (*/+)

Source of Oil

Anti-arthritic efficacy

GP activity3

Pathogenicity4

Dermal1

Oral-ST2

Oral-LT2

Oral (%)

AIA

CIA

Emu fat, Australia

 WA (Kalaya)

3*

3.1*

2.6*

58

0.6+

0.3+

 Qld (Cherburg)

3.3*

1.2*

3*

68

+

0.5+

 NSW (Turner)

3.7*

3.8*

2.8*

 

0.2+

 

 Vic (Baramul)

3.5*

3.8*

3.4*

100

0.5+

1.2+

 Others (n = 23)

<2.0*

0.9*

<0.5*

<23

1.7–3.3+

 

Ostrich fat from birds in

 Africa (n = 3)5

3.6*

1.2*

1.7*

82

0.4+

1.7+

 Vic (n = 1)

2.1*

1.8*

 

63

2.3+

 

 NSW, Qld, SA, WA (n = 7)

<1.1*

 

07*

07

3+

 

Muttonbird (proventricular oil)

 Tas (Yolla, n = 3)

33*

0.7*

0

84

0.2+

0.5+

 SA (Bickford)

1.4*

   

2.3+

 

 NZ (Stewart Is)

3*

 

0.3*

 

0.3+

 

Goanna fat

 Qld (n = 3)

4*

  

54

0.2+

0.3+

 NSW (n = 1)

2.7*

   

0.4+

0.7+

Data = mean values from replicate studies (n = 2–7), each with 3–5 rats per group. Experimental details given in published reports (Whitehouse et al. 1998, 2001; Turner 2012) also outlined below.

Key to Table:

  1. 1.

    Rubbed into shaved dorsal skin after mycobacterial-induced (adjuvant) arthritis was established for 10 days. Effects quantified by reduction in arthritic scores, compared to store-bought light olive oil (**** = very effective, i.e. no arthritis and 0 = no effect).

  2. 2.

    Given orally once daily for short term (ST) dosing = 4 days only beginning after first sign of arthritis expression (usually day 10) as in (1) above, or long-term (LT) dosing = for 15 days from time of arthritis inception.

  3. 3.

    Inhibition of gastric bleeding from oral ibuprofen (80 mg/kg) in arthritic rats (Whitehouse et al. 2001), oils administered orally 5 min previously: data here = mean of three studies.

  4. 4.

    Adverse immunostimulant (potential adjuvant) activity for inducing arthritis with mycobacterial (AIA) or collagen type-II (CIA) arthritigens (see text). These scores are toxicities on a scale of 0–4+; 0 = no induction of arthritis (4+ = maximum severity when mineral oil was the adjuvant oil).

  5. 5.

    Two from South Africa, one from Zimbabwe.

Sources of traditional medicinal oils

  • Emu. Dromaius novaehollandiae = flightless bird native to Australia.

  • Ostrich. Struthio camelus = flightless bird, originally from Africa and the Middle East.

  • Muttonbird. Puffinus tenuirostris = seabird from Southern Australia and New Zealand

  • Goanna (Monitor lizards) of Varanidae family found in North and Central Australia. (Other monitors inhabit Asia and Africa)

Key to sources:

NSW, Qld, SA, Tas, Vic, WA = Australian States; NZ = New Zealand

Appendix C

Fatty acid composition of some triglyceride oils

Data = % w/w of total fatty acids from triglycerides (and waxes)

Fatty acid

Human skin

Emu oils from

Olive oils

Palm oil7

S.Africa (SD)1

USA2

USA2

S.Aus3

Vic4

WAust5

Aus(SE)6

CDX7

Malta8

ESP3

12:0

0.4 (0.2)

     

0.4 (0.7)

    

14:0

3.4 (1.2)

2.1

0.4

 

0.3

0.4

0.4 (0.1)

   

0.5 = 5.9

16:0

22.7 (2.6)

20.2

22.0

24

19.8

26.0

20.4 (2.3)

7.5–20

15.9

10.4

32–59

16:1 ω7

8.4 (2.2)

3.8

3.5

4.3

2.8

4.7

3.7 (1.0)

0.3–3.5

1.4

0.7

 

18:0

4.3 (1.6)

11.2

9.6

8.5

8.5

9.8

9.3 (1.2)

0.5–3.5

2.6

3.1

1.5–8.0

18:1 ω9

45.4 (4.1)

30.8

47.4

49.1

45.6

48.0

48.4 (4.6)

56–83

65.9

73.9

27–52

ω7

      

2.1 (0.3)

    

18:2 ω6

9.7 (3.6)

15.1

15.2

9.5

19.4

8.6

11.4 (3.7)

3.5–20

11.7

8.4

5–14

α18:3

0.7 (0.4)

0.3

0.9

1.1

1.4

0.4

2.4 (5.5)

<1.5

0.8

0.7

<1.5

18:4

    

–

–

     

20:0

0.9 (0.5)

   

0.1

0.2

0.2 (0.1)

 

0.5

  

20:1 ω9

     

0.3

0.3 (0.2)

 

0.3

  

20:4 ω6

≤0.5

          

20:5 ω3

           

22:6

           
  1. Footnotes to Appendix C (Parts 1 and 2)

Fatty acid composition of some triglyceride oils

Data = % w/w of total fatty acids from triglycerides (and waxes)

Fatty acid

Ostrich oils from

Muttonbird oils from

Neatsfoot oils

W.Africa9

S.Africa10

Poland11

NZ12

P.ten. 13

Yolla-113

Yolla-213

Tas(P)14

Tas(A)14

Horse15

Cattle16

X17

12:0

            

14:0

0.9

0.8

0.7 (0.1)

4.0

5.4

3.3

3.9

2.5

6.1

0.8

1.0

1.5

16:0

24.8

28.4

20.3 (0.9)

7.7

15.8

8.7

7.2

3.7

14.6

17.9

18.2

12.6

16:1 ω7

5.6

8.4

0.4 (0.1)

9.9

15.3

13.9

9.5

9.3

7.9

18.8

11.9

9.7

18:0

5.9

6.3

0.6 (0.1)

1.3

1.8

1.1

1.3

3.7

3.6

2.5

3.6

2.4

18:1 ω9

39.7

16.9

36.4 (1.2)

25.2

24.8

35.4

26.6

25.0

29.9

34.3

60.5

64.4

ω7

   

4.8

 

5.4

5.3

     

18:2 ω6

17.0

13.3

16.2 (1.4)

1.9

1.8

1.8

2.0

3.1

4.0

5.1

2.9

2.1

α18:3

3.8

4.9

16.0 (1.2)

0.5

0.9

–

0.5

4.0

1.7

16.9

0.7

2.0

18:4

   

2.3

2.6

1.9

2.5

     

20:0

0.3

   

0.2

  

0.1

  

0.1

 

20:1 ω9

   

2.9

5.5

4.4

2.7

0.1

5.5

   

20:4 ω6

  

6.7 (1.2)

0.7

1.2

 

0.7

1.8

2.1

   

20:5 ω3

   

14.0

7.5

5.3

13.5

13.2

6.1

   

22:6 ω3

   

10.2

9.1

3.0

10.9

5.7

14.4

   

1

Subcutaneous adipose tissue: mean value (±SD) for 137 South Africans, 3 racial groups (Krut and Bronte-Stewart 1964)

2

American Emu Association (Minnaar 1998; Craig-Schmidt 1998)

3

South Australia (Abimosleh et al. 2013)

4

Baramul Castlemaine, Vic

5

Kalaya, Wiluna W.A.

6

Pan-Australian Survey: mean values (±SD) for 48 oils (Turner 2014, unpublished)

7

Codex Committee on Fats and Oils (Gunstone et al. 1986)

8

Wardija = indigenous Maltese monoculture (reputed to be 2000 years old)

9

Kept in captivity UK (Gunstone and Russell 1954)

10

Abdominal fat (Sales 1999; Sales and Franken 1996)

11

Culled females, n = 6 (Horbanczuk et al. 2003)

12

Stewart Island, New Zealand

13

Bass Strait Islands, Tasmania (Warham et al. 1996) and recent harvesting 2011, 2013 (Y-1, Y-2)

14

P = proventricular (stomach) oil; A = adipose tissue (Clarke 1989; also see Woodward et al. 1995)

15

Washpool Stud, Qld. Oil aged 6 months at room temperature

16

Irish cattle (Hilditch 1956)

17

Source unspecified; also cite data from Argentina (Barr et al. 1970)

Appendix D

Some pharmacogenic fungi that transform emu fat (SSF)

Epicoccum purpurescens

Mucor BB12

Mucor BB16

Penicillium chrysogenum

Rhizopus stolonifer

Absidia sp

Alternaria alternata

Chaetomium globosum

Chaetomium sp

Cryptococcus albidus

Mucor BB13

Mucor BB14

Mucor BB15

Mucor BB18

Mucor Black

Mucor spp

Nigrospora sphaerica

Penicillium janczewski

Penicillium sclerotiorum

Rhodotorula mucilaginosa

Trichosporon pullulans

  1. MacGee and Turner (unpublished)

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Turner, A., Hancock, G., Wells, J., Whitehouse, M. (2015). Traditional Medicinal Oils Sourced from Birds: Anti-inflammatories and Potential Immunoregulants. In: Rainsford, K., Powanda, M., Whitehouse, M. (eds) Novel Natural Products: Therapeutic Effects in Pain, Arthritis and Gastro-intestinal Diseases. Progress in Drug Research, vol 70. Springer, Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-0927-6_5

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