Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Influenza in Tropical and Subtropical Low-Income Regions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Influenza Vaccines for the Future

Part of the book series: Birkhäuser Advances in Infectious Diseases ((BAID))

Abstract

Influenza appears to be a major contributor to morbidity, hospitalization, and likely mortality in the tropical and subtropical low-income countries; however, its contribution has been largely underestimated due to a lack of data from these regions. Limited available data indicate that influenza circulation in the tropics differs in two respects from that in the temperate northern and southern hemispheres. First, while seasonal influenza tends to occur primarily in the late fall and winter in temperate zones, it appears to circulate year-round in tropics, with seasonal influenza A peaks between March and September in many of tropical settings, complementing temperate zone seasonality. This prolonged circulation may partly account for its apparent higher incidence in those countries where data are available. Virus circulation in East and Southeast Asia may determine seasonal reintroduction and circulation elsewhere. Second, the fraction of infections resulting in clinically important illness, particularly childhood pneumonia, appears to be higher in the tropics. Influenza may be responsible for a substantial fraction of the childhood pneumonia and pneumonia-related mortality, both from primary infection and from interaction with respiratory bacterial agents in the tropical belt. Introduction of influenza vaccine as a means to control influenza-related pneumonia in young children may be warranted. Indeed, control of childhood pneumonia may provide a mechanism for influenza vaccine uptake in these countries with wider benefits to both disease burden and mortality reduction, as well as surge capacity for vaccine production during pandemics. Concern about pandemic influenza has increased interest in vaccine use, including increased seasonal vaccine use, and initiation of vaccine production in some countries. Continued and enhanced surveillance in the tropics, particularly in East and Southeast Asia, is warranted both to monitor burden and the impact of interventions, such as vaccination, and to identify emergence and spread of novel viruses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Country population estimates from UNICEF, 2008 with global total = 6.734 billion.

References

  1. Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE (2005) WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365:1147–1152

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, Biloglav Z, Mulholland K, Campbell H (2008) Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86:408–416

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Adegbola RA, Secka O, Lahai G, Lloyd-Evans N, Njie A, Usen S, Oluwalana C, Obaro S, Weber M, Corrah T et al (2005) Elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease from the Gambia after the introduction of routine immunisation with a Hib conjugate vaccine: a prospective study. Lancet 366:144–150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Berman S (1991) Epidemiology of acute respiratory infections in children of developing countries. Rev Infect Dis 13(Suppl 6):S454–S462

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Brooks WA, Breiman RF, Goswami D, Hossain A, Alam K, Saha SK, Nahar K, Nasrin D, Ahmed N, El Arifeen S et al (2007) Invasive pneumococcal disease burden and implications for vaccine policy in urban Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77:795–801

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cutts FT, Zaman SM, Enwere G, Jaffar S, Levine OS, Okoko JB, Oluwalana C, Vaughan A, Obaro SK, Leach A et al (2005) Efficacy of nine-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in the Gambia: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 365:1139–1146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Klugman KP, Madhi SA, Huebner RE, Kohberger R, Mbelle N, Pierce N (2003) A trial of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children with and those without HIV infection. N Engl J Med 349:1341–1348

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Levine OS, Lagos R, Munoz A, Villaroel J, Alvarez AM, Abrego P, Levine MM (1999) Defining the burden of pneumonia in children preventable by vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18:1060–1064

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. World Health Organisation (2007) Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for childhood immunization – WHO position paper. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 82:93–104

    Google Scholar 

  10. World Health Organisation (2006) WHO position paper on Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines. (Replaces WHO position paper on Hib vaccines previously published in the Weekly Epidemiological Record). Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81:445–452

    Google Scholar 

  11. Scott JA, Brooks WA, Peiris JS, Holtzman D, Mulholland EK (2008) Pneumonia research to reduce childhood mortality in the developing world. J Clin Invest 118:1291–1300

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Viboud C, Alonso WJ, Simonsen L (2006) Influenza in tropical regions. PLoS Med 3:e89

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Higgs ES, Hayden FG, Chotpitayasunondh T, Whitworth J, Farrar J (2008) The Southeast Asian Influenza Clinical Research Network: development and challenges for a new multilateral research endeavor. Antiviral Res 78:64–68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Simmerman JM, Uyeki TM (2008) The burden of influenza in East and South-east Asia: a review of the English language literature. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2:81–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Liang XF, Wang HQ, Wang JZ, Fang HH, Wu J, Zhu FC, Li RC, Xia SL, Zhao YL, Li FJ et al (2010) Safety and immunogenicity of 2009 pandemic influenza A H1N1 vaccines in China: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 375:56–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Yoshida LM, Suzuki M, Yamamoto T, Nguyen HA, Nguyen CD, Nguyen AT, Oishi K, Vu TD, Le TH, Le MQ et al (2010) Viral pathogens associated with acute respiratory infections in central vietnamese children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 29:75–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Zhu FC, Wang H, Fang HH, Yang JG, Lin XJ, Liang XF, Zhang XF, Pan HX, Meng FY, Hu YM et al (2009) A novel influenza A (H1N1) vaccine in various age groups. N Engl J Med 361:2414–2423

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, Brammer L, Bridges CB, Cox NJ, Fukuda K (2004) Influenza-associated hospitalizations in the United States. JAMA 292:1333–1340

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, Brammer L, Cox N, Anderson LJ, Fukuda K (2003) Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. JAMA 289:179–186

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Shek LP, Lee BW (2003) Epidemiology and seasonality of respiratory tract virus infections in the tropics. Paediatr Respir Rev 4:105–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Simmerman JM, Chittaganpitch M, Levy J, Chantra S, Maloney S, Uyeki T, Areerat P, Thamthitiwat S, Olsen SJ, Fry A et al (2009) Incidence, seasonality and mortality associated with influenza pneumonia in Thailand: 2005–2008. PLoS ONE 4:e7776

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Waicharoen S, Thawatsupha P, Chittaganpitch M, Maneewong P, Thanadachakul T, Sawanpanyalert P (2008) Influenza viruses circulating in Thailand in 2004 and 2005. Jpn J Infect Dis 61:321–323

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Lee WM, Grindle K, Pappas T, Marshall DJ, Moser MJ, Beaty EL, Shult PA, Prudent JR, Gern JE (2007) High-throughput, sensitive, and accurate multiplex PCR-microsphere flow cytometry system for large-scale comprehensive detection of respiratory viruses. J Clin Microbiol 45:2626–2634

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Abdullah Brooks W, Terebuh P, Bridges C, Klimov A, Goswami D, Sharmeen AT, Azim T, Erdman D, Hall H, Luby S et al (2007) Influenza A and B infection in children in urban slum, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis 13:1507–1508

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chatterjee S, Mukherjee KK, Mondal MC, Chakrabrorty MS (1996) A study of influenza A virus in the city of Calcutta, India, highlighting the strain prevalence. Acta Microbiol Pol 45:279–283

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. John TJ, Cherian T, Steinhoff MC, Simoes EA, John M (1991) Etiology of acute respiratory infections in children in tropical southern India. Rev Infect Dis 13(Suppl 6):S463–S469

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Rao BL, Yeolekar LR, Kadam SS, Pawar MS, Kulkarni PB, More BA, Khude MR (2005) Influenza surveillance in Pune, India, 2003. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 36:906–909

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Yeolekar LR, Kulkarni PB, Chadha MS, Rao BL (2001) Seroepidemiology of influenza in Pune, India. Indian J Med Res 114:121–126

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Broor S, Parveen S, Bharaj P, Prasad VS, Srinivasulu KN, Sumanth KM, Kapoor SK, Fowler K, Sullender WM (2007) A prospective three-year cohort study of the epidemiology and virology of acute respiratory infections of children in rural India. PLoS ONE 2:e491

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Mathisen M, Strand TA, Sharma BN, Chandyo RK, Valentiner-Branth P, Basnet S, Adhikari RK, Hvidsten D, Shrestha PS, Sommerfelt H (2009) RNA viruses in community-acquired childhood pneumonia in semi-urban Nepal; a cross-sectional study. BMC Med 7:35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Mathisen M, Strand TA, Sharma BN, Chandyo RK, Valentiner-Branth P, Basnet S, Adhikari RK, Hvidsten D, Shrestha PS, Sommerfelt H (2010) Clinical presentation and severity of viral community-acquired pneumonia in young Nepalese children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 29:e1–e6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Huq F, Rahman M, Nahar N, Alam A, Haque M, Sack DA, Butler T, Haider R (1990) Acute lower respiratory tract infection due to virus among hospitalized children in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Rev Infect Dis 12(Suppl 8):S982–S987

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Rahman M, Huq F, Sack DA, Butler T, Azad AK, Alam A, Nahar N, Islam M (1990) Acute lower respiratory tract infections in hospitalized patients with diarrhea in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Rev Infect Dis 12(Suppl 8):S899–S906

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hasan K, Jolly P, Marquis G, Roy E, Podder G, Alam K, Huq F, Sack R (2006) Viral etiology of pneumonia in a cohort of newborns till 24 months of age in rural Mirzapur, Bangladesh. Scand J Infect Dis 38:690–695

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Zaman RU, Alamgir AS, Rahman M, Azziz-Baumgartner E, Gurley ES, Sharker MA, Brooks WA, Azim T, Fry AM, Lindstrom S et al (2009) Influenza in outpatient ILI case-patients in national hospital-based surveillance, Bangladesh, 2007–2008. PLoS ONE 4:e8452

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Brooks WA, Goswami D, Rahman M, Nahar K, Fry AM, Balish A, Iftekharuddin N, Azim T, Xu X, Klimov A et al (2010) Influenza is a major contributor to childhood pneumonia in a tropical developing country. Pediatr Infect Dis J 29:216–221

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Zaman K, Roy E, Arifeen SE, Rahman M, Raqib R, Wilson E, Omer SB, Shahid NS, Breiman RE, Steinhoff MC (2008) Effectiveness of maternal influenza immunization in mothers and infants. N Engl J Med 359:1555–1564

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Kiro A, Robinson G, Laks J, Mor Z, Varsano N, Mendelson E, Amitai ZS (2008) [Morbidity and the economic burden of influenza in children in Israel – a clinical, virologic and economic review]. Harefuah 147:960–965, 1031

    Google Scholar 

  39. Peled T, Weingarten M, Varsano N, Matalon A, Fuchs A, Hoffman RD, Zeltcer C, Kahan E, Mendelson E, Swartz TA (2001) Influenza surveillance during winter 1997–1998 in Israel. Isr Med Assoc J 3:911–914

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Chi XS, Bolar TV, Zhao P, Rappaport R, Cheng SM (2003) Cocirculation and evolution of two lineages of influenza B viruses in Europe and Israel in the 2001–2002 season. J Clin Microbiol 41:5770–5773

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Zaraket H, Dbaibo G, Salam O, Saito R, Suzuki H (2009) Influenza virus infections in Lebanese children in the 2007–2008 season. Jpn J Infect Dis 62:137–138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Nicholson KG, Wood JM, Zambon M (2003) Influenza. Lancet 362(9397):1733–1745

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Schoub BD, McAnerney JM, Besselaar TG (2002) Regional perspectives on influenza surveillance in Africa. Vaccine 20(Suppl 2):S45–S46

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Forgie IM, O’Neill KP, Lloyd-Evans N, Leinonen M, Campbell H, Whittle HC, Greenwood BM (1991) Etiology of acute lower respiratory tract infections in Gambian children: II. Acute lower respiratory tract infection in children ages one to nine years presenting at the hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J 10:42–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Mulholland EK, Ogunlesi OO, Adegbola RA, Weber M, Sam BE, Palmer A, Manary MJ, Secka O, Aidoo M, Hazlett D et al (1999) Etiology of serious infections in young Gambian infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18:S35–S41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Gachara G, Ngeranwa J, Magana JM, Simwa JM, Wango PW, Lifumo SM, Ochieng WO (2006) Influenza virus strains in Nairobi, Kenya. J Clin Virol 35:117–118

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Bulimo WD, Garner JL, Schnabel DC, Bedno SA, Njenga MK, Ochieng WO, Amukoye E, Magana JM, Simwa JM, Ofula VO et al (2008) Genetic analysis of H3N2 influenza A viruses isolated in 2006–2007 in Nairobi, Kenya. Influenza Other Respi Viruses 2:107–113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Besselaar TG, Botha L, McAnerney JM, Schoub BD (2004) Antigenic and molecular analysis of influenza A (H3N2) virus strains isolated from a localised influenza outbreak in South Africa in 2003. J Med Virol 73:71–78

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Besselaar TG, Botha L, McAnerney JM, Schoub BD (2004) Phylogenetic studies of influenza B viruses isolated in southern Africa: 1998–2001. Virus Res 103:61–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Madhi SA, Ramasamy N, Bessellar TG, Saloojee H, Klugman KP (2002) Lower respiratory tract infections associated with influenza A and B viruses in an area with a high prevalence of pediatric human immunodeficiency type 1 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 21:291–297

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Madhi SA, Klugman KP (2004) A role for Streptococcus pneumoniae in virus-associated pneumonia. Nat Med 10:811–813

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Savy V (2002) Regional perspectives on influenza surveillance in South America. Vaccine 20(Suppl 2):S47–S49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Russell CA, Jones TC, Barr IG, Cox NJ, Garten RJ, Gregory V, Gust ID, Hampson AW, Hay AJ, Hurt AC et al (2008) The global circulation of seasonal influenza A (H3N2) viruses. Science 320:340–346

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1995) Update: influenza activity – worldwide, 1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 44:644–645, 651–652

    Google Scholar 

  55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1994) Update: influenza activity – worldwide, 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 43:691–693

    Google Scholar 

  56. Alonso WJ, Viboud C, Simonsen L, Hirano EW, Daufenbach LZ, Miller MA (2007) Seasonality of influenza in Brazil: a traveling wave from the Amazon to the subtropics. Am J Epidemiol 165:1434–1442

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Gordon A, Saborio S, Kuan G, Videa E, Ortega O, Reingold A, Balmaseda A, Harris E (2009) A prospective cohort study of the seasonality and burden of pediatric influenza in Nicaragua XI International Symposium on Respiratory Viral Infections. The Macrae Group, Bangkok

    Google Scholar 

  58. Nascimento-Carvalho CM, Ribeiro CT, Cardoso MR, Barral A, Araujo-Neto CA, Oliveira JR, Sobral LS, Viriato D, Souza AL, Saukkoriipi A et al (2008) The role of respiratory viral infections among children hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia in a developing country. Pediatr Infect Dis J 27:939–941

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Laguna-Torres VA, Gomez J, Ocana V, Aguilar P, Saldarriaga T, Chavez E, Perez J, Zamalloa H, Forshey B, Paz I et al (2009) Influenza-like illness sentinel surveillance in Peru. PLoS ONE 4:e6118

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fiore AE, Shay DK, Broder K, Iskander JK, Uyeki TM, Mootrey G, Bresee JS, Cox NJ (2009) Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2009. MMWR Recomm Rep 58:1–52

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Nelson MI, Simonsen L, Viboud C, Miller MA, Holmes EC (2007) Phylogenetic analysis reveals the global migration of seasonal influenza A viruses. PLoS Pathog 3:1220–1228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Bueving HJ, van der Wouden JC, Berger MY, Thomas S (2005) Incidence of influenza and associated illness in children aged 0–19 years: a systematic review. Rev Med Virol 15:383–391

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Poehling KA, Edwards KM, Weinberg GA, Szilagyi P, Staat MA, Iwane MK, Bridges CB, Grijalva CG, Zhu Y, Bernstein DI et al (2006) The underrecognized burden of influenza in young children. N Engl J Med 355:31–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Chiu SS, Chan KH, Chen H, Young BW, Lim W, Wong WH, Lau YL, Peiris JS (2009) Virologically confirmed population-based burden of hospitalization caused by influenza A and B among children in Hong Kong. Clin Infect Dis 49:1016–1021

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Chiu SS, Lau YL, Chan KH, Wong WH, Peiris JS (2002) Influenza-related hospitalizations among children in Hong Kong. N Engl J Med 347:2097–2103

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Naheed A, Saha SK, Breiman RF, Khatun F, Brooks WA, El Arifeen S, Sack D, Luby SP (2009) Multihospital surveillance of pneumonia burden among children aged <5 years hospitalized for pneumonia in Bangladesh. Clin Infect Dis 48(Suppl 2):S82–S89

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. World Health Organization/UNICEF (2000) Management of the child with a serious infection or severe malnutrition: guidelines for care at the first-referral level in developing countries. Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development, World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  68. Kunisaki KM, Janoff EN (2009) Influenza in immunosuppressed populations: a review of infection frequency, morbidity, mortality, and vaccine responses. Lancet Infect Dis 9:493–504

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. O’Brien KL, Wolfson LJ, Watt JP, Henkle E, Deloria-Knoll M, McCall N, Lee E, Mulholland K, Levine OS, Cherian T (2009) Burden of disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet 374:893–902

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Watt JP, Wolfson LJ, O’Brien KL, Henkle E, Deloria-Knoll M, McCall N, Lee E, Levine OS, Hajjeh R, Mulholland K et al (2009) Burden of disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet 374:903–911

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. McCullers JA (2006) Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 19:571–582

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Clague B, Chamany S, Burapat C, Wannachaiwong Y, Simmerman JM, Dowell SF, Olsen SJ (2006) A household survey to assess the burden of influenza in rural Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 37:488–493

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Simmerman JM, Lertiendumrong J, Dowell SF, Uyeki T, Olsen SJ, Chittaganpitch M, Chunsutthiwat S, Tangcharoensathien V (2006) The cost of influenza in Thailand. Vaccine 24:4417–4426

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Schweiger B, Zadow I, Heckler R (2002) Antigenic drift and variability of influenza viruses. Med Microbiol Immunol 191:133–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Barr IG, Komadina N, Hurt A, Shaw R, Durrant C, Iannello P, Tomasov C, Sjogren H, Hampson AW (2003) Reassortants in recent human influenza A and B isolates from Southeast Asia and Oceania. Virus Res 98:35–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Rambaut A, Pybus OG, Nelson MI, Viboud C, Taubenberger JK, Holmes EC (2008) The genomic and epidemiological dynamics of human influenza A virus. Nature 453:615–619

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Macroepidemiology of Influenza Vaccination (MIV) Study Group (2005) The macro-epidemiology of influenza vaccination in 56 countries, 1997–2003. Vaccine 23:5133–5143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Breiman RF, Brooks WA, Goswami D, Lagos R, Borja-Tabora C, Lanata CF, Londono JA, Lum LC, Rappaport R, Razmpour A et al (2009) A multinational, randomized, placebo-controlled trial to assess the immunogenicity, safety, and tolerability of live attenuated influenza vaccine coadministered with oral poliovirus vaccine in healthy young children. Vaccine 27:5472–5479

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Forrest BD, Pride MW, Dunning AJ, Capeding MR, Chotpitayasunondh T, Tam JS, Rappaport R, Eldridge JH, Gruber WC (2008) Correlation of cellular immune responses with protection against culture-confirmed influenza virus in young children. Clin Vaccine Immunol 15:1042–1053

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Lum LC, Borja-Tabora CF, Breiman RF, Vesikari T, Sablan BP, Chay OM, Tantracheewathorn T, Schmitt HJ, Lau YL, Bowonkiratikachorn P et al (2010) Influenza vaccine concurrently administered with a combination measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine to young children. Vaccine 28:1566–1574

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Tam JS, Capeding MR, Lum LC, Chotpitayasunondh T, Jiang Z, Huang LM, Lee BW, Qian Y, Samakoses R, Lolekha S et al (2007) Efficacy and safety of a live attenuated, cold-adapted influenza vaccine, trivalent against culture-confirmed influenza in young children in Asia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 26:619–628

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009) Use of northern hemisphere influenza vaccines by travelers to the southern hemisphere. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58:312

    Google Scholar 

  83. de Mello WA, de Paiva TM, Ishida MA, Benega MA, Dos Santos MC, Viboud C, Miller MA, Alonso WJ (2009) The dilemma of influenza vaccine recommendations when applied to the tropics: the Brazilian case examined under alternative scenarios. PLoS ONE 4:e5095

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Pontoriero AV, Baumeister EG, Campos AM, Savy VL, Lin YP, Hay A (2003) Antigenic and genomic relation between human influenza viruses that circulated in Argentina in the period 1995–1999 and the corresponding vaccine components. J Clin Virol 28:130–140

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Brooks WA (2009) A four-stage strategy to reduce childhood pneumonia-related mortality by 2015 and beyond. Vaccine 27:619–623

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Head Infectious Diseases Unit, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Mohakhali, 128, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh

    W. Abdullah Brooks

  2. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Suite E8132, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA

    W. Abdullah Brooks

  3. Global Health Center, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, ML 2048, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA

    Mark C. Steinhoff

Authors
  1. W. Abdullah Brooks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mark C. Steinhoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to W. Abdullah Brooks .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Novartis Vaccines & Diagnostics S.r.l., Via Fiorentina 1, Siena, 53100, Italy

    Rino Rappuoli

  2. Novartis Vaccines & Diagnostics S.r.l., Via Fiorentina 1, Siena, 53100, Italy

    Giuseppe Del Giudice

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Birkhäuser Basel

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Brooks, W.A., Steinhoff, M.C. (2011). Epidemiology of Influenza in Tropical and Subtropical Low-Income Regions. In: Rappuoli, R., Del Giudice, G. (eds) Influenza Vaccines for the Future. Birkhäuser Advances in Infectious Diseases. Springer, Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0346-0279-2_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation