Abstract
Blockchain technology is disruptive and relies on the development of consensus algorithms, CAs. Currently, there are many CAs proposed and this paper explores a new avenue of nature-inspired CAs. In particular, emphasis is on selection techniques used in canonical genetic algorithms, GAs, combined with a stamina attribute. The premise is that selection techniques used in GAs could be adapted and used to select nodes responsible for adding blocks in permissioned blockchain networks. Various selection techniques were researched and the Fitness Proportionate Selection was chosen as the most suitable, which was tested on a blockchain network and executed many times and compared to another CA for permission blockchain networks, Proof-of-Elapsed-Time, PoET. The results of the experiments show an improvement in transaction throughput and block creation when compared with PoET. Our initial results, however, had a biased node selection and could be vulnerable to take-over attacks. Therefore, a stamina element was introduced and the experiments were repeated with the results showing a less biased node selection. The overall contribution is the exploration of nature as a solution to CAs. The initial results are comparable and in places better than existing CAs, such as PoET.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Maesa DDF, Mori P (2020) Blockchain 3.0 applications survey. J Parallel Distrib Comput 138:99–114
Azaria A, Ekblaw A, Vieira T, Lippman A (2016) Medrec: using blockchain for medical data access and permission management. In: International conference on open and big data. pp 25–30
Mitchell I, Sheriff M, Hara S (2019) DappER: decentralised application for exam reviews. Global security, safety and sustainability. The Security Challenges of the Connected World
Al-Jaroodi J, Mohamed N (2019) Blockchain in industries: a survey. IEEE Access 7:36500–36515
Lokre SS, Naman V, Priya S, Panda Sk (2021) Gun tracking system using blockchain technology. In: Blockchain Technology: applications and challenges. Springer, pp 285–300
Mitchell I, Hara S, Jahankhani H, Neilson D (2020) Blockchain of custody, BoC. In: Cyber security practitioner’s guide. World Scientific, pp 365–397
Whitaker A, Bracegirdle A, de Menil S, Gitlitz MA, Saltos L (2021) Art, antiquities, and blockchain: new approaches to the restitution of cultural heritage. Int J Cult Policy 27(3):312–329
Wang Z, Yang L, Wang Q, Liu D, Xu Z, Liu S (2019) ArtChain: blockchain-enabled platform for art marketplace. In: international conference on blockchain. IEEE, pp 447–454
Novo O (2018) Blockchain meets IoT: an architecture for scalable access management in IoT. IEEE Internet Things J 5(2):1184–1195
Filippova E (2019) Empirical evidence and economic implications of blockchain as a general purpose technology. In: 2019 IEEE technology and engineering management conference (TEMSCON). pp 1–8
Gallersdörfer U, Klaaßen L, Stoll C (2020) Energy consumption of cryptocurrencies beyond bitcoin. Joule 4(9):1843–1846
Sutherland BR (2019) Blockchain’s first consensus implementation is unsustainable. Joule 3(4):917–919
ISO26000 (2018) How to Contribute to sustainable development. International Organisation for Standardization (ISO). Geneva, CH
Sedlmeir J, Buhl HU, Fridgen G, Keller R (2020) The energy consumption of blockchain technology: beyond myth. Bus Inf Syst Eng 62(6):599–608
Hafid A, Hafid AS, Samih M (2020) Scaling blockchains: a comprehensive survey. IEEE Access 8:125244–125262
National Institute of Standards and Technology (2015) Secure Hash Standard. Tech. Rep. Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUBS) 180–4, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC
Holland JH (1992) Genetic algorithms. Sci Am 267(1):66–73
Shukla A, Pandey HM, Mehrotra D (2015) Comparative review of selection techniques in genetic algorithm. In: International conference on futuristic trends on computational analysis and knowledge management (ABLAZE). IEEE, pp 515–519
Thakkar P, Nathan S, Vishwanathan B (2018) Performance benchmarking and optimizing hyperledger fabric blockchain platform. arXiv preprint arXiv:1805.11390
Razali NM, Geraghty J, et al (2011) Genetic algorithm performance with different selection strategies in solving TSP. In: Proceedings of the world congress on engineering, vol 2. International Association of Engineers, Hong Kong, China, pp 1–6
Burkhardt M, Yampolskiy RV (2021) Death in genetic algorithms. CoRR abs/2109.13744, https://arxiv.org/abs/2109.13744
Dimopoulos C, Papageorgis P, Boustras G, Efstathiades C (2017) The concept of ageing in evolutionary algorithms: discussion and inspirations for human ageing. Mech Ageing Dev 163:8–14
Mingxiao D, Xiaofeng M, Zhe Z, Xiangwei W, Qijun C (2019) A review on consensus algorithm of blockchain. In: IEEE international conference on systems, man, and cybernetics (SMC). pp 2567–2572
Ferdous MS, Chowdhury MJM, Hoque MA, Colman A (2020) Blockchain consensus algorithms: a survey. arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.07091
Gencer AE, Basu S, Eyal I, Van Renesse R, Sirer EG (2019) Decentralization in bitcoin and ethereum networks. In: Financial cryptography and data security: 22nd international conference, FC 2018, Nieuwpoort, Curaçao, February 26–March 2, 2018, Revised Selected Papers 22. Springer, pp 439–457
Aslam T, Maqbool A, Akhtar M, Mirza A, Khan MA, Khan WZ (2022) Blockchain based enhanced ERP transaction integrity architecture and PoET consensus. Comput Mater Contin 70(1):1089–1109
Bonyuet D (2020) Overview and impact of blockchain on auditing. Int J Digit Account Res 20:31–43
Snow P, Deery B, Kirby P, Johnston D (2015) Factom ledger by consensus. Retrieved from Factom website: http://www.factom.org. Accessed June 2023
Cahyadi D, Faturahman A, Haryani H, Dolan E et al (2021) BCS: Blockchain smart curriculum system for verification student accreditation. Int J Cyber IT Serv Manag 1(1):65–83
Tariq A, Haq HB, Ali ST (2022) Cerberus: a blockchain-based accreditation and degree verification system. IEEE Trans Comput Soc Syst
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Mitchell, I., Maka, K. (2024). A Proposed Permissioned Blockchain Consensus Algorithm: Consensus Algorithm Genetically Enhanced (CAGE). In: Jahankhani, H. (eds) Cybersecurity Challenges in the Age of AI, Space Communications and Cyborgs. ICGS3 2023. Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47594-8_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47594-8_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-47593-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-47594-8
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)