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Local Interpretation and Implementation of Central Government Policy on Home and Civil Defence

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Bombardment, Public Safety and Resilience in English Coastal Communities during the First World War

Part of the book series: Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History ((GSSCMH))

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Abstract

This chapter extends the discussion of emergency legislation and regulations to the north-east coastal region, with a particular focus on coastal artillery defence, lighting regulations and early-warning systems and public safety information dissemination. The chapter hinges on a discussion of the structure and functions of wartime governance, with a focus on the Authorised Competent Military Authority (ACMA). The primary contention here is that the ACMA, though apparently referring to the military leadership of a given region, was a shifting multilevel coalition of central, regional and local civilian and military bodies. This perspective, on the dispersal of agency throughout civil society, is applied to local decision-making regarding pre-bombardment planning and post-attack response. This discussion includes moments of contestation and protest by civilians who questioned the legitimacy of voluntary bodies such as the Special Constabulary, seen by some as violating the sacrosanct private realm of the home to police alarm periods.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    André Keil, ‘States of Exception: Emergency Government and ‘Enemies Within’ in Britain and Germany during the First World War’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Northumbria University, 2014), 3.

  2. 2.

    Patrick Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London: Verso, 2003), 258–9.

  3. 3.

    Patrick Joyce and Chandra Mukerji, ‘The State of Things: State History and Theory Reconfigured’, Theory and Society, 46 (1) (2017), 11–15.

  4. 4.

    Sidney W. Clarke, ‘The Rule of DORA’, Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, 1 (1) (1919), 39.

  5. 5.

    Joyce and Mukerji, ‘The State’, 11; Chris A. Williams, Police Control Systems in Britain, 1775–1975: From Parish Constable to National Computer (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014), 90.

  6. 6.

    Arthur Marwick, The Deluge: British Society and the First World War, 2nd ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006), 197; Ian F.W. Beckett, ‘Total War’ in Total War and Historical Change: Europe 1914–1955, eds. Arthur Marwick, Wendy Simpson and Clive Emsley (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2008), 35; Tammy M. Proctor, Civilians in a World at War, 1914–1918 (New York: New York University Press, 2010), 78.

  7. 7.

    Susan R. Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 125; David Edgerton, Warfare State: Britain, 1920–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 5.

  8. 8.

    Joe Foster, The Guns of the North-East: Coastal Defences from the Tyne to the Humber (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2004), 143–67.

  9. 9.

    Tom Crook, ‘Danger in the Drains: Sewer Gas, Sewerage Systems and the Home, 1850–1900’ in Governing Risks in Modern Britain: Danger, Safety and Accidents, c. 1800–2000, eds. Tom Crook and Mike Esbester (London: Palgrave, 2016), 105–26.

  10. 10.

    James Greenhalgh, ‘The Threshold of the State: Civil Defence, the Blackout and the Home in Second World War Britain’, Twentieth Century British History, 28 (2) (2017), 190; Joyce, Rule of Freedom, 88–9.

  11. 11.

    Lucy Noakes and Susan R. Grayzel, ‘Defending the Home(land): Gendering Civil Defence from the First World War to the ‘War on Terror” in Gender and Conflict since 1914: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Ana Carden-Coyne (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012), 30.

  12. 12.

    Keil, ‘States of Exception’, 123.

  13. 13.

    Townshend, Making the Peace, 65; See G.J. Alexander, ‘The Illusory Protection of Human Rights by National Courts during Periods of Emergency’, Human Rights Law Journal, 5 (1) (1984), 1–65.

  14. 14.

    Keil, 123; David Dyzenhaus, The Constitution of Law: Legality in a Time of Emergency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 17; Stuart Halifax, “Over by Christmas’: British Popular Opinion and the Short War in 1914’, First World War Studies, 1 (2) (2010), 103–121.

  15. 15.

    Grayzel, At Home, 25.

  16. 16.

    TNA, CAB 3/2, ‘Attack on the British Isles from Oversea’, CID memorandum, 14 September 1914.

  17. 17.

    Ibid.

  18. 18.

    Foster, 162.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., 166; Longmate, Island Fortress, 445; TNA, WO 32/5528, ‘A Summary of the Policy and Work of Coast Fortification in Great Britain during the past 60 years’, March 1918, 18.

  20. 20.

    TNA, WO 32/5528, ‘A Summary’, 18.

  21. 21.

    Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919, Vol. 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), 344; Alexander Howlett, ‘The Royal Naval Air Service and Anti-Submarine Warfare in the North Sea, 1917–1918’, British Journal for Military History, 4 (2) (2018), 33; Redford, The Submarine, 103.

  22. 22.

    TNA, WO 32/5528, ‘A Summary’, 17.

  23. 23.

    The total cost of the temporary batteries, including accommodation, guns and railway transport, was £318,875. The combined cost of the ‘island forts’ at Bull Sand and Haile Sand was £403,860. The new defences built at the forts, in comparison, cost a total of £70,629. See Ibid., ‘Statement of Cost’.

  24. 24.

    Marder, 148.

  25. 25.

    Foster, 145.

  26. 26.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile raids and bombardments of the English coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’; Longmate, 436.

  27. 27.

    Witt and McDermott, 110–11.

  28. 28.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile raids and bombardments of the English coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’, ‘Action taken by British flotilla at Hartlepool’.

  29. 29.

    Witt and McDermott, 147; ‘The Germans Call These ‘Fortifications’!’, Scarborough Pictorial, 27 January 1915, 5.

  30. 30.

    Whitby Gazette, 24 December 1914, 6.

  31. 31.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile raids and bombardments of the English coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’.

  32. 32.

    ‘Hull Street Lights and Air Raid’, Hull Daily Mail, 27 January 1915, 3.

  33. 33.

    ‘Zeppelin Attacks’, Hull Daily Mail, 22 January 1915, 5.

  34. 34.

    ‘Air Raids and Bomb-Proof Shelters. A Suggestion’, Hull Daily Mail, 14 March 1916, 7.

  35. 35.

    Ibid.

  36. 36.

    ‘Air Raid Defence’, ‘Zepp. Raids and Anti-Air Guns’, Hull Daily Mail, 14 March 1916, 7.

  37. 37.

    ‘Dig Ourselves In!’, Hull Daily Mail, 16 March 1916, 2.

  38. 38.

    ‘Aeroplanes for Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 June 1915, 4.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Gullace, “The Blood”, 37.

  41. 41.

    ‘Aeroplanes for Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 June 1915, 4. See response by Will Moger.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Ibid.

  44. 44.

    Holman, Next War, 40; Howlett, ‘The Royal Naval Air Service’, 35.

  45. 45.

    Holman, 11.

  46. 46.

    ‘The Protection of Hull’, Hull Times, 8 February 1919, 7; Credland, Hull Zeppelin Raids, 110.

  47. 47.

    ‘Mr. T.C. Turner’s Impressions’, Hull Times, 25 January 1915, 7.

  48. 48.

    ‘The Protection of Hull’, Hull Times, 8 February 1919, 7.

  49. 49.

    ‘The Hull Scouts’ Share’, Hull Times, 8 February 1919, 7.

  50. 50.

    ‘“Anti-Aircraft”’, Hull Times, 8 February 1919, 3; Dennis, Territorial Army, 9.

  51. 51.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, J.A. Ferrier to Headquarters Northern Command, 10 June 1915.

  52. 52.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, H.M. Lawson to War Office, 14 June 1915.

  53. 53.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, J.A. Ferrier to Headquarters Northern Command, 14 August 1915.

  54. 54.

    Ibid.

  55. 55.

    Marsay, Bombardment!, 66, 128.

  56. 56.

    A.J. Grant, ‘A Century of Growth, 1826–1925’ in The History of Scarborough, ed. Arthur Rowntree (London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1931), 315.

  57. 57.

    ‘Rumours and Invasion’, Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough, 26 December 1914, 2.

  58. 58.

    Marsay, 128.

  59. 59.

    ‘Bombardment of Scarborough’, Bath Chronicle, 19 December 1914, 3.

  60. 60.

    ‘Defending our East Coast from Invaders’, Illustrated War News, 30 December 1914, 34.

  61. 61.

    Brantz, ‘Environments of Death’, 83.

  62. 62.

    Illustrated War News, 30 December 1914, 34.

  63. 63.

    ‘Bombardment of Scarborough’, Bath Chronicle, 19 December 1914, 3.

  64. 64.

    E. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Home Front: A Mirror to Life in England during the First World War (London: Cresset Hutchinson, 1987, first published 1932), 114.

  65. 65.

    SL, UBC, ‘NOTES of an interview with Brigadier N.T. Nickalls on Tuesday, the 23rd. March, 1915, with respect to Barbed Wire Entanglements, Trenches &c.’. This is explored in greater detail later.

  66. 66.

    ‘The Bombardment’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 22 March 1920, 3; TA, PS/H/14/30, Justices’ Minute Book, Hartlepool Headland, Jun 1917–Oct 1920, 26 December 1917, 3 April 1918.

  67. 67.

    ‘Royal Defence Corps’, The Times, 20 March 1916, 9.

  68. 68.

    ‘Royal Defence Corps’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 20 March 1916, 2; Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 24 July 1916, 2.

  69. 69.

    Marsay, 393.

  70. 70.

    Marwick, Deluge, 84.

  71. 71.

    Witt and McDermott, 65; Marder, 144.

  72. 72.

    SL, UBC, George Clark & Sons to Harry W. Smith, 18 January 1915.

  73. 73.

    ‘Warnings Against German Air Raids’, Birmingham Daily Post, 26 January 1915, 10.

  74. 74.

    ‘Important Notice’, Scarborough Mercury, 22 January 1915, 5.

  75. 75.

    ‘Police Notice’, Hull Daily Mail, 27 January 1915, 6.

  76. 76.

    SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to C.M. Shaw, 28 January 1915; ‘The “Hooters”’, Scarborough Mercury, 5 February 1915, 8.

  77. 77.

    SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to F.W. Spurr, 10 February 1915.

  78. 78.

    SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to C.M. Shaw, 2 February 1915.

  79. 79.

    ‘The “Hooters”’, Scarborough Mercury, 5 February 1915, 8.

  80. 80.

    Ibid.

  81. 81.

    SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to F.W. Spurr, 10 February 1915.

  82. 82.

    SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to C.M. Shaw, 2 February 1915; SL, UBC, Matthew Hay to Harry W. Smith, 14 January 1915.

  83. 83.

    TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, Henry Windsor to A.L. Dixon, 19 November 1915.

  84. 84.

    ‘Precautions Against Air Raids: Government Measures to Protect the North’, Yorkshire Post, 18 February 1916, 8.

  85. 85.

    Credland, 17.

  86. 86.

    ‘Experiment with “Buzzer”’, Hull Daily Mail, 7 July 1915, 2.

  87. 87.

    ‘“Buzzers” and Needless Alarm’, Hull Daily Mail, 7 July 1915, 2.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    ‘Steamers “Buzzing” in the Docks’, Hull Daily Mail, 23 July 1915, 3.

  90. 90.

    ‘Unofficial Buzzers’, Hull Daily Mail, 8 July 1915, 2.

  91. 91.

    ‘London’s Air Raid Warnings’, Hull Daily Mail, 18 July 1917, 3.

  92. 92.

    ‘Clearer Buzzers Called For’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 July 1915, 2.

  93. 93.

    ‘Big “Lizzie” at the Museum’, Hull Daily Mail, 17 May 1919, 3.

  94. 94.

    ‘£500 for Oak Mantelpiece’, Hull Daily Mail, 21 July 1915, 2.

  95. 95.

    ‘Ibid.

  96. 96.

    ‘Clearer Buzzers Called For’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 July 1915, 2.

  97. 97.

    Grayzel, At Home, 274.

  98. 98.

    HHC, C TCW, Minutes of Proceedings of Committees 1917–1918, Watch Committee, 31 October 1917, 164.

  99. 99.

    ‘Air Raid Shelter’, Hull Daily Mail, 11 October 1917, 4.

  100. 100.

    HHC, C TCW, Minutes of Proceedings of Committees 1917–1918, Watch Sub-Committee, 27 February 1918, 50; ‘Air Raid Shelters’, Hull Daily Mail, 31 October 1917, 4.

  101. 101.

    ‘Hull Air Raid Shelters’, Hull Daily Mail, 27 February 1918, 4.

  102. 102.

    G.J. Ashworth, War and the City (London: Routledge, 1991), 141.

  103. 103.

    Charles Cook, Defence of the Realm Manual, Seventh Edition (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1919), 100.

  104. 104.

    ‘Zeppelin Attacks’, Hull Daily Mail, 22 January 1915, 5.

  105. 105.

    The 2nd Volunteer Battalion (Civic Guards), Voluntary Force had 188 recruits by 6 January 1915. See Hull Daily Mail, 6 January 1915, 5.

  106. 106.

    Ibid.

  107. 107.

    ‘Hull Must Look Up!’, Hull Daily Mail, 6 April 1909, 4

  108. 108.

    ‘Zeppelin Attacks’, Hull Daily Mail, 22 January 1915, 5.

  109. 109.

    Nicholas J. Saunders, ‘Culture, Conflict and Materiality: The Social Lives of Great War Objects’ in Materialising the Military, eds. Bernard Finn and Barton Hacker (London: NMSI, 2005), 83.

  110. 110.

    Shane Ewen, ‘Central Government and the Modernisation of the British Fire Service, 1900–38’, Twentieth Century British History, 14 (4) (2003), 325.

  111. 111.

    HHC, City and County of Kingston Upon Hull Municipal Corporation and Urban Sanitary Authority. Minutes of Proceedings of Committees, 1914–1915, Watch Committee, Fire Brigade Sub-Committee, 10 June 1915, 112; ‘Fires in War Time’, Hull Daily Mail, 9 June 1915, 3.

  112. 112.

    ‘Precautions at War Time’, Hull Daily Mail, 11 June 1915, 4; The Sphere, 5 June 1915, 8.

  113. 113.

    TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘Instructions to the public on the best means of obviating the effects of asphyxiating shells’ folder, E.R. Henry to New Scotland Yard, 17 June 1915.

  114. 114.

    ‘Fires in War Time’, Hull Daily Mail, 9 June 1915, 3.

  115. 115.

    The Sphere, 5 June 1915, 8; ‘The German Incendiary Bomb: Its Composition and Precautions Against It’, Illustrated War News, 2 June 1915, 26; Ewen, ‘British Fire Service’, 332.

  116. 116.

    Shane Ewen, Fighting Fires: Creating the British Fire Service, 1800–1978 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 103.

  117. 117.

    ‘Incendiary Bombs Described’, Star Green ‘Un, 5 June 1915, 2.

  118. 118.

    TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘Incendiary Attacks by Enemy Aircraft’, 23 June 1915; HO 45/10883/344919, National Fire Brigades’ Union, ‘Suggestions for fire brigades situated in areas liable to incendiary attacks by enemy aircraft and precautions against poisonous cases’, June 1915; The NFBU was formed in 1887, amalgamating a number of regional associations for voluntary and works’ fire brigades. See Ewen, Fighting Fires, 100.

  119. 119.

    ‘Special Constables and Air Raids’, Police Review and Parade Gossip (hereafter Police Review), Police Review and Parade Gossip, 25 June 1915, 303.

  120. 120.

    Police Review, 2 November 1917, 350.

  121. 121.

    HHC, C DIGJ/1, Hull City Police Fire Brigade record book, 1895–1934, n.d. (c. July 1915), 192.

  122. 122.

    ‘Strengthening the Hull Fire Brigade’, Yorkshire Post, 4 August 1915, 3.

  123. 123.

    HHC, C DIGJ/1, Hull City Police Fire Brigade record book, 1895–1934, n.d. (c. July 1915), 198.

  124. 124.

    Ewen, Fighting Fires, 75, 83; ‘Councils in War Time’, Municipal Journal, 6 April 1917, 337.

  125. 125.

    TNA, HO 45/10751/266118, Admiralty to Home Office, 4 January 1915.

  126. 126.

    ‘Bombardment Precautions’, Whitby Gazette, 24 December 1914, 11.

  127. 127.

    ‘Air Raid Precautions’, Leeds Mercury, 7 January 1916, 4.

  128. 128.

    War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire (London: HMSO, 1922), 674.

  129. 129.

    North Yorkshire County Record Office (NYCRO), ZW (M) 15/2, ‘Notice. Bombardment or Raids’, 7 October 1915.

  130. 130.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile raids and bombardments of the English coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’.

  131. 131.

    NYCRO, ZW (M) 15/2, ‘Notice. Bombardment or Raids’, 7 October 1915.

  132. 132.

    ‘Hull and the Alarm Buzzer’, Hull Daily Mail, 23 September 1915, 3.

  133. 133.

    NYCRO, Z.1028, North Riding Lieutenancy, ‘Forewarned is Forearmed’, February 1918.

  134. 134.

    Greenhalgh, ‘Threshold’, 186–208.

  135. 135.

    Joyce and Mukerji, 13.

  136. 136.

    The Sketch, 18 November 1914, 12–13.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., emphasis added.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.

  139. 139.

    War Office, Statistics, 674; Susan R. Grayzel, ‘“A promise of terror to come”: Air Power and the Destruction of Cities in British Imagination and Experience, 1908–39’ in Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War, eds. Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene (London: Ashgate, 2011), 47–62.

  140. 140.

    The Sketch, 18 November 1914, 12.

  141. 141.

    Holman, ‘The Phantom Airship Panic of 1913: Imagining Aerial Warfare in Britain before the Great War’, Journal of British Studies, 55 (1) (2016), 99–119; Holman, Next War, 187, 194.

  142. 142.

    The Sketch, 18 November 1914, 12.

  143. 143.

    ‘Bombardment Precautions’, Whitby Gazette, 24 December 1914, 12.

  144. 144.

    Ibid.

  145. 145.

    Ibid.; NYCRO, QP (MIC 1392): NR Constabulary books 1857–1920, 6 March 1916.

  146. 146.

    NYCRO, DC/WHR, Whitby Urban District Council records, Special Meeting of Council, 18 December 1914.

  147. 147.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, Borough of Scarborough: East Coast Bombardment Awards file, Mayor of Scarborough to Mayor of Hartlepool, 26 July 1915.

  148. 148.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, Mayor of Scarborough to Walter Rea, 24 July 1915; Walter Rea to Mayor of Scarborough, 27 July 1915.

  149. 149.

    ‘East Coast Raids’, The Times, 25 September 1915, 3; NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, Mayor of Scarborough to Mayor of Hartlepool, 24 July 1915.

  150. 150.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, Mayor of Hartlepool to Mayor of Scarborough, 25 July 1915.

  151. 151.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, Understanding, 102–103.

  152. 152.

    ‘Inquests on Victims’, Yorkshire Post, 19 December 1914, 7; NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, Mayor of Scarborough to George Rowntree, 9 August 1915; J. Percy Hall to Town Clerk, Scarborough, 16 August 1915.

  153. 153.

    ‘East Coast Raids’, The Times, 25 September 1915, 3.

  154. 154.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB III 1/1 143, G.B. to George Rowntree, 31 July 1915.

  155. 155.

    ‘£1,000 Air Raid Insurance’, Hull Daily Mail, 23 August 1917, 3.

  156. 156.

    ‘A Conversation after the Zeppelin Raid’, Hull Daily Mail, 14 March 1918, 2.

  157. 157.

    TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile raids and bombardments of the English coast’ file, ‘Appendix “D”: List of persons killed at Scarborough during the bombardment on the 16th December 1914’.

  158. 158.

    Ibid., ‘List of persons killed or died of injuries at Hartlepool’; ‘List of persons injured at West Hartlepool’.

  159. 159.

    IWM, Dept. of Documents, K 81705, ‘Zeppelin Raids on Hull’.

  160. 160.

    ‘East Coast Raids’, Times, 25 September 1915, 3; ‘East Coast Dwellers Dislike the Scheme’, Leeds Mercury, 23 September 1915, 5.

  161. 161.

    ‘Government Insurance against German Air Raids or Bombardment’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 9 August 1915, 3.

  162. 162.

    ‘Aircraft and Bombardment Insurance’, Municipal Journal, 11 February 1916, 123.

  163. 163.

    ‘East Coast Distress’, Municipal Journal, 11 February 1916, 124.

  164. 164.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB (MIC 1050), Borough of Scarborough Corporation, Streets and Sanitary Committee, 17 September 1915, 19 November 1915.

  165. 165.

    Rosie Kennedy, The Children’s War: Britain, 1914–1918 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2014), 7; Broadberry and Howlett, ‘Business as Usual?’, 206–234.

  166. 166.

    Peter N. Stearns, ‘Childhood Emotions in Modern Western History’ in The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World, ed. Paula S. Fass (London: Routledge, 2012), 162.

  167. 167.

    ‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.

  168. 168.

    Grayzel, At Home, 43, 68–9; Gregory, Last Great War, 150.

  169. 169.

    ‘“Mail” Leading Article’, Hull Daily Mail, 9 March 1916, 3; ‘Dig Ourselves In!’, Hull Daily Mail, 16 March 1916, 2.

  170. 170.

    Horne and Kramer, 302; Grayzel, 37.

  171. 171.

    ‘Bombardment Drill’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 6 January 1915, 3; East Riding of Yorkshire Archives (ERYA), SL227/1, Hull St Mary’s High School Records, annual general meeting, 11 January 1917.

  172. 172.

    NYCRO, DC/SCB (MIC 1140), Borough of Scarborough Corporation, Education Committee, 25 January 1915.

  173. 173.

    NYCRO, S/WH 11/1/3, The Mount British/County School log book, 1912–1945, 29 January 1915, 81. This tunnel served as a shortcut to residential streets and a docking area.

  174. 174.

    TNA, HO 45/10754/266118, ‘To His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department’ petition, November 1915.

  175. 175.

    TNA, HO 45/10754/266118, Anon. to Messrs. Medley & Co. Solicitors, 6 December 1915.

  176. 176.

    TNA, HO 45/10754/266118, F.C.H. Sinclair to A.L. Dixon, 20 November 1915.

  177. 177.

    TNA, HO 45/10754/266118, G. Maud to A.L. Dixon, 22 November 1915.

  178. 178.

    TNA, ADM, 137/966, War Office to Admiralty, 10 March 1915.

  179. 179.

    SL, UBC, ‘NOTES of an interview with Brigadier N.T. Nickalls on Tuesday, the 23rd. March, 1915, with respect to Barbed Wire Entanglements, Trenches &c.’.

  180. 180.

    Ibid.

  181. 181.

    TNA, WO 32/5273, Field Marshall French to Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 13 February 1916.

  182. 182.

    SL, UBC, ‘NOTES of an interview with Brigadier N.T. Nickalls on Tuesday, the 23rd. March, 1915, with respect to Barbed Wire Entanglements, Trenches &c.’.

  183. 183.

    SL, UBC, T. Wilson to Town Clerk, 7 April 1915; Town Clerk to Borough Engineer, 8 April 1915.

  184. 184.

    Ludwik Ehrlich, ‘British Emergency Legislation during the Present War’, California Law Review, 5 (6) (1917), 433.

  185. 185.

    Cook, DORA Manual, 42.

  186. 186.

    SL, UBC, Borough Engineer to T. Wilson, 10 April 1915.

  187. 187.

    SL, UBC, N.T. Nickalls to ‘Mr Graham’, 23 March 1915.

  188. 188.

    SL, UBC, Harry Smith, Borough Engineer to Lieut. Col. W.M. Smith, 22 April 1915.

  189. 189.

    George Morey, The North Sea (London: Frederick Muller, 1968), 229.

  190. 190.

    ‘To-day’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 21 December 1914, 2.

  191. 191.

    Ibid.

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Reeve, M. (2021). Local Interpretation and Implementation of Central Government Policy on Home and Civil Defence. In: Bombardment, Public Safety and Resilience in English Coastal Communities during the First World War. Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86851-2_4

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