Constructing Fear of Invasion and Bombardment

Reeve, Michael

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86851-2_2

Michael Reeve⁶

Part of the book series: Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History ((GSSCMH))

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Abstract

This chapter provides an assessment of the pre-war and wartime cultural construction of invasion and bombardment fear, through analysis of local and national newspapers and popular literature from the late nineteenth century to the onset of the war. Particular attention is paid to the adaptation of prevalent invasion fears for use in the locale. For example, in the 1900 play ‘The Invasion of Britain’ at Hull’s Theatre Royal, probable targets for enemy bombers were well-known city streets, residential areas and landmarks. As anxiety regarding the rise of German industrial and naval power increased from 1909, even genteel seaside resorts, such as Scarborough, were included in mock invasion exercises organised by the Territorial Force. The aim of this chapter is to establish a social and cultural context for the reception of actual bombardment in winter 1914.

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Notes

1.
Michael Paris, Winged Warfare: The Literature and Theory of Aerial Warfare in Britain, 1859–1917 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), 16–19.
2.
Brett Holman, ‘The Phantom Airship Panic of 1913: Imagining Aerial Warfare in Britain before the Great War’, Journal of British Studies, 55 (1) (2016), 101.
3.
John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial (London: Yale University Press, 2001), 204.
4.
Eric Leed, No Man’s Land: Combat & Identity in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 2; Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). More recently: Jessica Meyer, Men of War: Masculinity and the First World War in Britain (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), Ch. 2; Michael Roper, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009); David Englander, ‘Soldiering and Identity: Reflections of the Great War’, War in History, 1 (3) (1994), 316; Peter Grant, Philanthropy and Voluntary Action in the First World War: Mobilizing Charity (New York: Routledge, 2014), 174; Tammy M. Proctor, Civilians in a World at War (New York: New York University Press, 2010), 20.
5.
Helen McCartney, Citizen Soldiers: The Liverpool Territorials in the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 79.
6.
David Monger, ‘Soldiers, Propaganda and Ideas of Home in First World War Britain’, Cultural and Social History, 8 (3) (2011), 332.
7.
Jay Winter, ‘Forms of Kinship and Remembrance in the Aftermath of the Great War’ in War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century, eds. Jay Winter and Emmanuel Sivan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 41, 47.
8.
Susan R. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War: Gender, Motherhood, and Politics in Britain and France during the First World War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina Press, 1999), 11–12.
9.
Maggie Andrews, ‘Ideas and Ideals of Domesticity and Home in the First World War’ in The Home Front in Britain: Images, Myths and Forgotten Experiences since 1914, eds. Maggie Andrews and Janis Lomas (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 6.
10.
Grant, Philanthropy, 19; Reeve, ‘Special Needs’, 483–501; Proctor, Civilians, Ch. 3.
11.
Jeffry M. Diefendorf, ‘Wartime Destruction and the Postwar Cityscape’ in War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age, ed. Charles E. Closmann (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), 176.
12.
David Morgan-Owen, Fear of Invasion: Strategy, Politics, and British War Planning, 1880–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 141–2.
13.
Andrew Walker, ‘The Development of the Provincial Press in England, c. 1780–1914’, Journalism Studies, 7 (3) (2006), 377; Brad Beaven, ‘The Provincial Press, Civic Ceremony and the Citizen-Soldier During the Boer War, 1899–1902: A Study of Local Patriotism’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 37 (2) (2009), 212.
14.
Frederick Miller, Under German Shell Fire: The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby under German Shell-fire, First Edition (West Hartlepool: Robert Martin, 1915), 72–73; Hull History Centre (HHC), CIWD/1, “To Commemorate Peace after the Great War 1914–1919” (Hull Peace Celebrations Committee, 1919).
15.
Paris, Winged Warfare, 56.
16.
Duncan Redford, The Submarine: A Cultural History from the Great War to Nuclear Combat (London: I.B. Tauris, 2015), 69–70.
17.
Catriona Pennell, “The Germans have landed!’: Invasion Fears in the South-East of England, August to December 1914’ in Untold War: New Perspectives in First World War Studies, eds. Heather Jones, Jennifer O’Brian and Christoph Schmidt-Supprian (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 97; Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860–1914 (New York: Humanity, 1980), 414–15.
18.
Jan Rüger, The Great Naval Game: Britain and Germany in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 203.
19.
Paris, Winged Warfare, 56, 67.
20.
Ibid., 92; Longmate, Island Fortress, 398; Proctor, Civilians, 17.
21.
Paris, Winged Warfare, 92.
22.
‘England’s Supremacy’, Sheffield Independent, 23 June 1909, 4; Paris, 92.
23.
‘Aerial League and Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 29 June 1909, 7.
24.
‘The Resurrection of the “Nulli Secundus”: The New Army Air-ship’, Illustrated London News, 1 August 1908, 11.
25.
‘Hull Must Look Up!’, Hull Daily Mail, 6 April 1909, 4.
26.
Ibid.
27.
Redford, The Submarine, 13.
28.
Paris, 87; Redford, 69; Brett Holman, The Next War in the Air: Britain’s Fear of the Bomber, 1908–1941 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 178.
29.
Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism, 418.
30.
Paris, 41.
31.
Hull Brewery Co. advertisement, Hull Daily Mail, 5 February 1914.
32.
Alex J.M. Gray, ‘Motoring: By Land, Sea, and Sky’, The Bystander, 9 April 1913, 107.
33.
Ibid.
34.
TNA, AIR 1/606/16/15/251, ‘Reports on Seaplane, Aeroplane, Airship Raids, 1914–1917’.
35.
IWM, LBY K 81705, ‘Zeppelin Raids on Hull’ folder.
36.
‘The Anti-Zep Gales’, Hull Daily Mail, 19 February 1916, 2.
37.
‘Zeppelin Raids: When Can They Occur?’, Yorkshire Post, 9 February 1916, 4.
38.
‘New Moon and Zeppelin Raids’, Hull Daily Mail, 9 February 1916, 2.
39.
Proctor, Civilians, 107; Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene, ‘Towards a Metropolitan History of Total War: An Introduction’ in Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War, eds. Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene (London: Ashgate, 2011), 22.
40.
IWM, Department of Documents, Documents.16285, P. Thornton to Enid Ormiston, 22 April 1916.
41.
Ibid., 31 December 1915.
42.
Susan Kingsley Kent, Aftershocks: Politics and Trauma in Britain, 1918–1931 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 19–20.
43.
IWM, Department of Documents, Documents.16285, P. Thornton to Enid Ormiston, 20 May 1916.
44.
‘The Air Raids on the East Coast’, Hull Daily Mail, 7 September 1915, 4; Cate Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War (London: Allen Lane, 1977), 37.
45.
IWM, Department of Documents, Documents.16285, P. Thornton to Enid Ormiston, 26 April 1916.
46.
‘Air Raid Psychology’, The Lancet, 14 July 1917, 55.
47.
Susan R. Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 39–40.
48.
Ibid., 83.
49.
Roper, Secret Battle, 49.
50.
Liddle Collection, Special Collections, Leeds University Library (LC), LIDDLE/WW1/GS/0603A, Papers of L.W. Gamble, Pte. L.W. Gamble to Mother, 1 April 1916.
51.
LC, LIDDLE/WW1/GS/0603A, L.W. Gamble to Elsie Gamble, 9 April 1916. ‘Johnny Walker’ refers to a popular brand of whisky (Johnnie Walker).
52.
‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.
53.
Maurice Wright, ‘Effect of War on Civilian Populations’, The Lancet, 28 January 1939, 189–90.
54.
Quoted in Grayzel, At Home, 62; ‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.
55.
Grayzel, 77.
56.
‘Air-Raid Psychology and Air-Raid Perils’, The Lancet, 6 October 1917, 540.
57.
Martin Pugh, State and Society: A Social and Political History of Britain since 1870 (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 137; Rüger, Naval Game, 225.
58.
TNA, CAB 3/2, CID papers, ‘The Military Resources of Germany, and Probably Method of their Employment in a War between Germany and England’.
59.
Paris, Winged Warfare, 46.
60.
Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 2 November 1897, 2.
61.
Hull Daily Mail, 28 June 1900, 2.
62.
George Franks, “The Invasion of Britain”, letter to editor, Hull Daily Mail, 28 June 1900, 4.
63.
William Bourne, ‘“The Invasion of Britain: A Protest Against a Protest’, letter to editor, Hull Daily Mail, 28 June 1900, 4.
64.
Walter E. Smith, ‘“The Invasion of England”: A Protest’, letter to editor, Hull Daily Mail, 27 June 1900, 4.
65.
Richard P. Hallion, ‘World War I: An Air War of Consequence’, Endeavour, 38 (2) (2014), 83; Joanna Bourke, Fear: A Cultural History (London: Virago, 2006), 234.
66.
Heather Jones, ‘The Great War: How 1914–18 Changed the Relationship Between War and Civilians’, The RUSI Journal, 159 (4) (2014), 86.
67.
David G. Morgan-Owen, The Fear of Invasion: Strategy, Politics, and British War Planning, 1880–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 25, 131.
68.
Eugenio F. Biagini, British Democracy and Irish Nationalism 1876–1906 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 11, Morgan-Owen, Fear of Invasion, 131.
69.
‘Bombardment & Capture of Hartlepool’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 8 August 1888, 2.
70.
‘The Mimic Naval War’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 8 August 1888, p. 4; ‘The Bogus Warfare on the Tyne’, Morpeth Herald, 11 August 1888, 5.
71.
‘Selfishness Endangers Whole Town’, Whitby Gazette, 12 May 1916, 5.
72.
‘Local Volunteers’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 16 February 1885, 3.
73.
‘Bombardment & Capture of Hartlepool’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 8 August 1888, 2.
74.
‘Fire Brigade Dinner’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 23 February 1889, 3.
75.
Norman Longmate, Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain 1603–1945 (London: Random Century, 1991), 395.
76.
Ibid., 396.
77.
‘Withernsea Rifle Club Prize Night: The Fear of Invasion’, Hull Daily Mail, 24 December 1909, 8. Withernsea is a seaside resort to the east of Hull, approximately fifteen miles from the city limits.
78.
Hugh Cunningham, The Volunteer Force: A Social and Political History, 1859–1908 (London: Croom Helm, 1975), 10.
79.
Brad Beaven, Visions of Empire: Patriotism, Popular Culture and the City, 1870–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012), 77.
80.
‘Stray Notes’, Whitby Gazette, 4 December 1908, 10.
81.
Morgan-Owen, 165; ‘The Cavalry Manoeuvres’, The Times, 9 September 1890, 8.
82.
TNA, CAB 3/2, CID papers, ‘Statement made by A.J. Balfour before the Sub-Committee on Invasion, Friday, 29^th May, 1908’.
83.
Bryan Ranft, ‘The Protection of British Seaborne Trade and the Development of Systematic Planning for War, 1860–1906’ in Technical Change and British Naval Policy 1860–1939, ed. Bryan Ranft (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1977), 1–22.
84.
Robb Robinson and Ian Hart, Viola: The Life and Times of a Hull Steam Trawler (London: Lodestar, 2014), 24.
85.
Bernhard Rieger, “Modern Wonders’: Technological Innovation and Public Ambivalence in Britain and Germany, 1890s to 1933’, History Workshop Journal, 55 (1) (2003), 153.
86.
‘Repelling the Invaders’, Manchester Courier, 26 September 1905, 7.
87.
Beaven, ‘Local Patriotism’, 217.
88.
‘The Invasion of Scarborough’, Leeds Mercury, 24 April 1909, 5.
89.
‘Warm Welcome Promised at Scarborough’, Leeds Mercury, 24 April 1909, 5.
90.
Eastern Morning News, 24 June 1914.
91.
‘To-day’, Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 21 December 1914, 2; Gregory, Last Great War, 150–1.
92.
‘“Seizing” Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 18 September 1905, 2.
93.
Longmate, 393.
94.
‘“Seizing” Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 18 September 1905, 2.
95.
‘Hull Heavies in Camp: Gunners’ Night Attack on Tynemouth’, Hull Daily Mail, 26 August 1924, 3.
96.
Fiona Reid, Medicine in First World War Europe: Soldiers, Medics, Pacifists (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 84; Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, ‘Battle for the Mind: World War I and the Birth of Military Psychiatry’, The Lancet, 384 (2014), 1708–14; Mark Osborne Humphries and Kellen Kurchinski, ‘Rest, Relax and Get Well: A Re-Conceptualisation of Shell Shock Treatment’, War & Society, 27 (2) (2008), 89–110.
97.
Fiona Reid, “His nerves gave way’: Shell shock, History and the Memory of the First World War in Britain’, Endeavour, 38 (2) (2014), 91.
98.
Joanna Bourke, ‘Fear and Anxiety: Writing About Emotion in Modern History’, History Workshop Journal, 55 (1) (2003), 114.
99.
Ibid.
100.
Bourke, Fear, 189.
101.
Michael Skey, ‘“A sense of where you belong in the world”: National Belonging, Ontological Security and the Status of the Ethnic Majority in England’, Nations & Nationalism, 16 (4) (2010), 713–733.
102.
Gregory, Last Great War, 236; Panikos Panayi, The Enemy in Our Midst: Germans in Britain during the First World War (Oxford: Berg, 1991).
103.
Ibid.; ‘Hull Anti-German Riots’, Hull Daily Mail, 6 October 1915, 5.
104.
D.G. Woodhouse, Anti-German Sentiment in Kingston upon Hull: The German Community and the First World War (Hull: Hull Record Office, 1990), 28.
105.
‘Anti-German Demonstrations’, Hull Daily Mail, 17 May 1915, 3.
106.
Gregory, 236.
107.
Robb Robinson, Trawling: The Rise and Fall of the British Trawl Fishery (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1996), 134.
108.
Paul K. Saint-Amour, Tense Future: Modernism, Total War, Encyclopedic Form (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 7, 17.
109.
Ibid.
110.
Grayzel, At Home, 56.
111.
Ibid., 46–49, 59–60.
112.
Ibid., 72, 79.
113.
TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘War Office: Possible Use of Poisonous Gases from Enemy Aircraft’ file, de Watteville to Wodehouse, 29 August 1917. Troup was Permanent Under-Secretary to the Home Office from 1908 to 1922. See P.W.B. Bartrip, ‘Troup, Sir Charles Edward’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/60141 (accessed 3 May 2018).
114.
Ibid., ‘Conference held at Adastral House on July 18th, 1917’.
115.
TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘Respirator for Use Against Poison Bombs’ file, ‘Household Respirator’, c. September 1917; op. cit., ‘Home Office Memoranda’ file, ‘Appendix B. Instructions for making a simple form of Respirator’, c. July 1917.
116.
Ibid., War Office to Army Council, 15 September 1917.
117.
Credland, Hull Zeppelin Raids, 17.
118.
Scarborough Library (SL), Uncatalogued Bombardment Correspondence (UBC), George Clark & Sons to Harry W. Smith, 18 January 1915; SL, UBC, Harry W. Smith to C.M. Shaw, 28 January 1915; ‘Warnings Against German Air Raids’, Birmingham Daily Post, 26 January 1915, 10.
119.
Hartlepool Museums and Galleries (HAPMG), ‘Borough of Hartlepool. To the Inhabitants’ poster, c. December 1914.
120.
North Yorkshire County Record Office (NYCRO), ZW (M) 15/2, ‘Notice. Bombardment or Raids’, 7 October 1915.
121.
NYCRO, Z.1028, North Riding Lieutenancy, ‘Forewarned is Forearmed’, February 1918; Grayzel, ‘Defence Against the Indefensible: The Gas Mask, the State and British Culture during and after the First World War’, Twentieth Century British History, 25 (3) (2014), 420; Reid, Medicine, 76.
122.
Ibid.
123.
TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘National Fire Brigades Union’ file, ‘Incendiary Attacks by Enemy Aircraft’, 23 June 1915; op. cit., ‘Suggestions for fire brigades situated in areas liable to incendiary attacks by enemy aircraft and precautions against poisonous cases’, 23 June 1915.
124.
Reid, Medicine, 76.
125.
TNA, HO 45/10883/344919, ‘Chief Officer London Fire Brigade’ file, George Morley to A.L. Dixon, 7 November 1917; Hull History Centre (HHC), C DIGJ/1, Hull City Police Fire Brigade record book, 1895–1934, n.d. (c. July 1915), 192.
126.
Arthur Lewis Dixon was a civil servant from 1903 to 1946, based primarily at the Home Office. At the outbreak of war in 1914, Dixon was given responsibility for a ‘war measures’ division of the Home Office and, following the experience of the Zeppelin raids, developed a ‘mutual assistance’ scheme for fire brigades. See Anon, ‘Dixon, Sir Arthur Lewis (1881–1969), civil servant’. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/32837 (accessed 8 January 2019).
127.
Ibid., Dixon to Morley, 9 November 1917.
128.
Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (London: Harvest, 1970).
129.
Grayzel, At Home, 68, 71; Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 210–11.
130.
Mumford, Cities, 275.
131.
Ibid., 275.
132.
Saint-Amour, Tense Future, 275; Mumford, Cities, 275.
133.
Mumford, 278–9.
134.
Kassandra Hartford, ‘Listening to the Din of the First World War’, Sound Studies, 3 (2) (2017), 98–100, 104.
135.
Phil Judkins, ‘Sound and Fury: Sound and Vision in Early U.K. Air Defence’, History and Technology, 32 (3) (2016), 233.
136.
‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.
137.
Bourke, Fear, 224.
138.
‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.
139.
East Riding of Yorkshire Archives (ERYA), DDST/1/8/2/2, Margaret Strickland Diaries, 4 December 1915 (27 Nov. 1915–9 Oct. 1917).
140.
Judkins, ‘Sound and Fury’, 233.
141.
W.M., ‘Have we Cause for Alarm?’, Hull Daily Mail, 12 July 1915, 2.
142.
David Englander, ‘Police and Public Order in Britain 1914–18’ in Policing Western Europe: Politics, Professionalism, and Public Order, 1850–1940, eds. Clive Emsley and Barbara Weinberger (London: Greenwood, 1991), 98.
143.
Dorothee Brantz, ‘Environments of Death: Trench Warfare on the Western Front, 1914–18’ in War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age, ed. Charles E. Closmann (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), 76.
144.
Hartford, ‘Listening’, 100.
145.
‘Our Day of Rest’, The Bystander, 17 February 1915, 30.
146.
‘Steamers “Buzzing” in the Docks’, Hull Daily Mail, 23 July 1915, 3.
147.
J. Saunders, ‘Cannot the Authorities Take Action’, Hull Daily Mail, 8 July 1915, 2.
148.
‘Unofficial Buzzers’, Hull Daily Mail, 8 July 1915, 2; ‘Experiment with “Buzzer”’, Hull Daily Mail, 7 July 1915, 2.
149.
Interested (nom de plume), ‘Clearer Buzzers Called For’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 July 1915, 2.
150.
‘Hull Woman’s Death: Killed by the Buzzers’, Hull Daily Mail, 14 July 1915, 3.
151.
‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522
152.
‘Upset by Alarm Signals: Hull Woman’s Attempted Suicide’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 July 1915, 3.
153.
IWM, Dept. of Documents, K 81705, ‘Zeppelin Warnings in Hull’; Credland, 108.
154.
Danger Zone (nom de plume), ‘Dogs and Zeppelins’, Hull Daily Mail, 15 March 1916, 2.
155.
‘Instinct of Birds and Horses’, Hull Daily Mail, 10 September 1915, 6.
156.
‘Parrots Foretell Air Raids’, Whitby Gazette, 20 April 1916, 7.
157.
Quoted in Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880–1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 89–90.
158.
Edward Madigan, “Sticking to a Hateful Task’: Resilience, Humour, and British Understandings of Combatant Courage, 1914–1918’, War in History, 20 (1) (2013), 85, 87.
159.
Saint-Amour, 2.
160.
Ashworth, War and the City, 138.
161.
Holman, ‘Phantom Airship Panic’, 103; Michael Paris, ‘The First Air Wars – North Africa and the Balkans, 1911–13’, Journal of Contemporary History, 26 (1) (1991), 99.
162.
Credland, Hull Zeppelin Raids, 17.
163.
‘The Raided Coast-Towns’, The Times, 17 December 1914, 9.
164.
Ibid.
165.
Lucy Noakes and Susan R. Grayzel, ‘Defending the Home(land): Gendering Civil Defence from the First World War to the ‘War on Terror” in Gender and Conflict since 1914: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Ana Carden-Coyne (London: Palgrave, 2012), 33.

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Reeve, M. (2021). Constructing Fear of Invasion and Bombardment. In: Bombardment, Public Safety and Resilience in English Coastal Communities during the First World War. Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86851-2_2

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