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The Politics of Adoption

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 86))

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Abstract

New Zealand is a multicultural Pacific nation with over 200 ethnic groups and 160 languages though English is the lingua franca. According to the latest national census, as at March 2020, it has a population of 5 million

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, further, at: https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/national-population-estimates-at-31-march-2020-infoshare-tables.

  2. 2.

    See, Moody, C., ‘Adoption Law in New Zealand: The Righta and Well-Being of the Child’, [2008] NZLawStuJl 7; (2008) 1 NZLSJ 487 at: https://www.nzlii.org/nz/journals/NZLawStuJl/2008/7.html.

  3. 3.

    See, Yeoman, A., Cook, L. and Wong, K., The Kiwi Nest: 60 years of Change in New Zealand Families, the Families Commission, 2008.

  4. 4.

    See, further, at: https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/marriages-civil-unions-and-divorces-year-ended-december-2019.

  5. 5.

    A/HRC/WG.6/32/L.1 at para. 24.

  6. 6.

    [1998] 1 NZLR 523.

  7. 7.

    Communication No 902/1999, (2002).

  8. 8.

    Dudgeon v. United Kingdom Application No. 7525/76, (1981).

  9. 9.

    [2013] NZHRRT 36.

  10. 10.

    Ibid. at paras. 33 and 42.

  11. 11.

    See, further, at: https://www.hrc.co.nz/our-work/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity/faqs/.

  12. 12.

    See, Anne Else, ‘A question of adoption: closed stranger adoption in New Zealand, 1944–1974′, Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1991, Table 1, p.xii (as cited by TeAra ‘The Encyclopedia of New Zealand’ at: https://teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/print).

  13. 13.

    https://teara.govt.nz/en/adoption.

  14. 14.

    See, Goodger, K., ‘Maintaining Sole Parent Families in New Zealand: An Historical Review’, Also, see, Hutt, R., ‘New Zealand’s Sole Parents and their Marital Status: Updating the Last Decade’, New Zealand Population Review, Issue 38, pp. 77–93.

  15. 15.

    Note that the DPB was abolished in 2013. A sole parent would now get”sole parent support” in Part 1B of the Social Security Act 1964 (as amended).

  16. 16.

    See, Pool, I., et al., ‘The New Zealand Family from 1840: A Demographic History’, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2007.

  17. 17.

    Statistics New Zealand 2005, 2007e.

  18. 18.

    See, further, Statistics New Zealand at: https://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/projections-overview/nat-family-hhold-proj.aspx.

  19. 19.

    See, Te Ara—The Encyclopedia of New Zealand at: https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/page-2.

  20. 20.

    See, Osborne, M., ‘Single Parent Adoption and Women’ at: https://adoption.about.com/od/nontraditional/a/singleapar.htm.

  21. 21.

    See, Auckland Medical Aid Trust v. Commissioner of Inland Revenue [1979] 1 NZLR 382.

  22. 22.

    See, In the Matter of Baby P (an unborn child) [1995] NZFLR 577. This is not disimilar to the interpretation in Irish law.

  23. 23.

    [2012] NZSC 68.

  24. 24.

    See, further, at: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=6&objectid=11823208.

  25. 25.

    A/HRC/WG.6/32/L.1 at para. 122.96.

  26. 26.

    Bill Atkin, note to author (06.06.2020).

  27. 27.

    [1998] NZFLR 769.

  28. 28.

    [1990] NZFLR 385.

  29. 29.

    Unreported (3 February 1993) DC Invercargill Adopt 6/92 Neal J.

  30. 30.

    Unreported (13 August 2003) FC Wanganui FAM-2003-034-17. See, also, Re An Application by BWS to adopt a child [2011] NZFLR 621. For a full account of surrogacy case law in New Zealsnd see Atkins, B., ‘Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament’, New Zealand Family Law Journal, (2012) 7 NZFLJ No 5.

  31. 31.

    See, in VP v. PM (1998) 16 FRNZ 61 where a lesbian mother retained custody of her two children.

  32. 32.

    See, further, Clifford, L., ‘“ARE YOU MY MOTHER?” A More Complicated Question than Distinguishing Birds from Barnyard Animals: The Determination of Legal Parentage in Surrogacy Arrangements in New Zealand ‘, University of Otago, (2016) at: https://www.otago.ac.nz/law/otago638187.pdf.

  33. 33.

    [2011] NZFLR 621.

  34. 34.

    See, Gilbert et al., ‘Child maltreatment: variation in trends and policies in six developed countries’, Lancet, (2011) at: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?hl=en&publication_year=2011&author=R+Gilbert&author=J+Fluke&author=M+O%27Donnell&author=A+Gonzalez-Izquierdo&author=M+Brownell&author=P+Gulliver&title=Child+maltreatment%3A+variation+in+trends+and+policies+in+six+developed+countries.

  35. 35.

    For example, P v. K. [2003] 2 NZLR 787, [2003] NZFLR 489 (HC); [2004] NZFLR 752 (FC); [2004] 2 NZLR 421 (HC). See, further, at: https://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/statistics/cyf/.

  36. 36.

    See, https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/393208/oranga-tamariki-stats-increase-in-maori-children-taken.

  37. 37.

    https://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/statistics/cyf/kids-in-care.html.

  38. 38.

    Ibid.

  39. 39.

    https://fyi.org.nz/request/4843/response/15944/attach/4/59610%20Mr%20de%20Geest%20response.pdf.

  40. 40.

    Re E (1991) 7 FRNZ 530 (FC).

  41. 41.

    See, further, at: https://www.cyf.govt.nz/about-us/who-we-are-what-we-do/adoptions-data-back-up.html.

  42. 42.

    See, Henaghen, M. and Atkin, B., Family Law Policy in New Zealand, (5th ed.,) LexisNexis.

    Butterworths, Wellington, 2020.

  43. 43.

    See, Gibbs, A, ‘Parenting adopted children and supporting adoptive parents: Messages from research’, Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, Issue 22(2), 2010, pp. 44–52.

  44. 44.

    See, further, at: https://www.adoptionoption.org.nz/adoption/new-zealand-adoption-prof/.

  45. 45.

    See, https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2020/03/nz-s-adoption-laws-outdated-critics-say.html.

  46. 46.

    Child Youth and Family Website < https://www.cyf.govt.nz > As cited in Wilson, M., ‘When Blood is Thicker than Water: Foster Parent Adoption in New Zealand’, LLB thesis, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand (2003).

  47. 47.

    Ibid., at p. 30.

  48. 48.

    See, further, at: https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/page-6.

  49. 49.

    See, for example, Newman, E., ‘History of Transracial Adoption: A New Zealand Perspective’, American Indian Quarterly, Vol 37, Issue 1–2, University of Nebraska Press, 2013.

  50. 50.

    See, Collins, M.H., ‘Belonging and Whakapapa: The Closed Stranger Adoption of Mäori Children into Pākehā Families’, thesis, Massey University, at: https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/3195/02_whole.pdf?sequence=1.

  51. 51.

    See, for example, Newman, E., ‘History of Transracial Adoption: A New Zealand Perspective’, American Indian Quarterly, University of Nebraska, Vol, 37, No, 1–2, pp. 237–257.

  52. 52.

    Henaghan, M. and Atkin, B., Family Law Policy in New Zealand, (5th ed.) op cit.

  53. 53.

    See, Pool, I, Dharmalingam, A. and Sceats, J., The New Zealand Family From 1840: A Demographic History, Auckland University Press, 2007 at p. 239.

  54. 54.

    New Zealand Māori Council v. Attorney-General, [1987] 1 NZLR 641, (1987) 6 NZAR 353, per Cooke P.

  55. 55.

    It must be borne in mind, however, that ‘open adoption’ has traditionally been a term used in reference to the Māori practice of informally and directly placing a child to be reared by others but without any compliance with legal procedures. This is now prohibited (all direct placements must involve Oranga Tamariki).

  56. 56.

    See, Griffiths, K., ‘Adoption History and Reform in New Zealand’, 1996, at: https://adoptionnz.com/?page_id=118.

  57. 57.

    [l995] NZFLR 817, 819.

  58. 58.

    [2009] NZFLR 1081.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., at paras at [29] and [32].

  60. 60.

    Ibid., at para [30]. See, further, Atkin B, ‘Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament’, New Zealand Family Law Journal, (2012) 7 NZFLJ No 5, from which this account was taken.

  61. 61.

    See, Ward, P., ‘Achieving permanence for looked after children through special guardianship: a study of the experience of New zealand guardians with implications for special guardianship in England’, Adoption & Fostering, Vol 28, Issue 4, 2004, pp. 16–26, at p. 18.

  62. 62.

    On 13th September 2007, the General Assembly adopted this landmark declaration outlining the rights of the world’s estimated 370 million indigenous people and outlawing discrimination against them: 143 Member States voted in favour; 11 abstained and four – Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States – voted against the text.

  63. 63.

    Adoption Action Incorporated v. Attorney-General [2016] NZHRRT 9, [2016] NZFLR 113.

  64. 64.

    The paramountcy principle has been upheld in cases such as Hamlin v. Rutherford (1989) 5 NZFLR 426.

  65. 65.

    See, further, D v. W (1995) 13 FRN 336 (HC), per Fisher J.

  66. 66.

    See, K v. G [2005] 3 NZLR 104 (HC) and B (CA204/97) v. The Department of Social Welfare [1998] 16 FRNZ 522 (HC).

  67. 67.

    See, further, at: https://www.nzlii.org/nz/other/nzlc/pp/PP38/PP38-6_.html.

  68. 68.

    [1997] 3 NZLR 269, 289.

  69. 69.

    For example, see: GM v. T [1996] NZFLR 817, 827, Re Adoption Application by JLH [1994] NZFLR 798, 805 and T v. J [2000] 2 NZLR 236.

  70. 70.

    See, further, at: https://adoptionfirststeps.org.nz.

  71. 71.

    https://www.icanz.gen.nz.

  72. 72.

    https://www.cfo.org.nz.

  73. 73.

    Adoption Act 1955, s 16(1), (1A) and (1B).

  74. 74.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 2, 3(1).

  75. 75.

    [2003] NZFLR 529.

  76. 76.

    Ibid., para 16.

  77. 77.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 17.

  78. 78.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 7(3)(b).

  79. 79.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 18.

  80. 80.

    Re Application by AMM and KJO to adopt a child [2010] NZFLR 629.

  81. 81.

    Re Gordon and Archer [2019] NZHC 184.

  82. 82.

    [2010] NZFLR 629.

  83. 83.

    New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, s 19, with the anti-discrimination grounds appearing in Human Rights Act 1993, s 21.

  84. 84.

    Re Application by AMM and KJO to adopt a child, op cit at [50].

  85. 85.

    [2001] NZHC 601; [2001] NZFLR 721.

  86. 86.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 3(3), 4(1)(c).

  87. 87.

    Ibid.

  88. 88.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 2, s 4(1)(b).

  89. 89.

    [2010] NZFLR 629.

  90. 90.

    [2015] NZFC 9404, [2016] NZFLR 53.

  91. 91.

    [2016] NZHRRT 9, [2016] NZFLR 113.

  92. 92.

    See, further, New Zealand Law Commission ‘Ancillary Services’ p. 38 at: https://www.nzlii.org/nz/other/nzlc/pp/PP38/PP38-14_.html.

  93. 93.

    LP and JP v. Department of Child, Youth and Family Service [2001] NZHC 601; [2001] NZFLR 721.

  94. 94.

    Note to author, 06.06.2020.

  95. 95.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 15(2).

  96. 96.

    Ibid., s 27A(1).

  97. 97.

    Ibid., s 9(2).

  98. 98.

    [1989] 2 NZLR 314.

  99. 99.

    1988) 4 FRNZ 497.

  100. 100.

    [1990] NZFLR 313.

  101. 101.

    (1984) 3 NZFLR 183.

  102. 102.

    [2002] NZFLR 913.

  103. 103.

    Walker v. Walker [1981] NZ Recent Law 257, per Hardie Boys J.

  104. 104.

    C v. C [1995] NZFLR 562.

  105. 105.

    Powell v. Duncan [1996] NZFLR 721.

  106. 106.

    [1999] NZFLR 161.

  107. 107.

    Director-General of Social Welfare v. L [1989] NZCA 130; [1989] 2 NZLR 314 (CA).

  108. 108.

    (I980) I DCR171.

  109. 109.

    [2001] NZHC 601; [2001] NZFLR 721.

  110. 110.

    Ibid.

  111. 111.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 25(1).

  112. 112.

    Moody, C., Adoption Law in New Zealand: The Rights and Well-Being of the Child’, [2008], op cit.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., at s 13A.

  114. 114.

    Gordon v. Campbell [2015] NZHC 1264, [2015] NZFLR 841.

  115. 115.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 16(2)(f).

  116. 116.

    Ibid., s 16 (2)(a) and (b).

  117. 117.

    Ibid., s 16 (2)(d).

  118. 118.

    Ibid., s 16 (2)(b).

  119. 119.

    Ibid., s 16 (2)(i).

  120. 120.

    The Births, Deaths, Marriages and Relationships Registration Act 1995, s 27.

  121. 121.

    See, further at: https://adoptionoption.org.nz.

  122. 122.

    See, further, at: https://www.cfo.org.nz/details-of-pre-adoption-education..

  123. 123.

    See, for example, Gibbs, A., ‘Parenting Adopted Children and Supporting Adoptive Parents’, Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, Issue 22(2), 2010, pp. 44–52 at p. 49.

  124. 124.

    (1986) 2 FRNZ 112, 117 (FC).

  125. 125.

    See, further, Griffith, K.C., ‘The Right to Know Who You Are: reform of adoption law with honesty, openness and integrity’, K. W. Kimbell, Ottawa, 1991.

  126. 126.

    See, the New Zealand Law Commission, Preliminary Paper 38, Adoption: Options for Reform, Chap 15, ‘Access to Adoption Information’ Wellington, 1999.

  127. 127.

    Note that the Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Bill 2018 proposes to introduce measures that will allow gender diverse people to more easily change the gender recorded on their birth certificates.

  128. 128.

    See, further, at: https://www.dia.govt.nz/Births-deaths-and-marriages.

  129. 129.

    Adult Adoption Information Act 1985, ss 3–6, 11.

  130. 130.

    Also, see, Adoption (Intercountry) Act 1997, s 30.

  131. 131.

    See, the New Zealand Law Commission, Preliminary Paper 38, op cit, citing 7 CCNO 224 (L J Castle).

  132. 132.

    See, further, Slane, B.H., Privacy Commissioner, ‘Access to Adoption Information’, 1 March 2000, at: https://www.privacy.org.nz/news-and-publications/reports-to-parliament-and-government/access-to-adoption-information/.

  133. 133.

    The Privacy Act 1993, s 29(1)(a).

  134. 134.

    See, Adoption and its Alternatives: A different approach and a new framework, NZLC R65, Wellington, (2000).

  135. 135.

    Moody, C., ‘Adoption Law in New Zealand: The Righta and Well-Being of the Child’, [2008], op cit.

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    Kerry O’Halloran

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O’Halloran, K. (2021). New Zealand. In: The Politics of Adoption. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 86. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65588-4_11

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