Abstract
Dube discusses the extension of curative health services, through hospitals and clinics, to rural Africans in this chapter. He examines the spatial distribution of health services based on borders, both internal and intercolonial, while continuing the theme of the fear of diffusion of disease and its impact on public health.
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Notes
- 1.
Prince, “Introduction: Situating Health and the Public in Africa,” 17. See also Michael, Worboys, “The Colonial World as Mission and Mandate: Leprosy and Empire, 1900–1940,” Osiris 15, 1 (2000): 207–219.
- 2.
Ibid., 18. See also Randall Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development and Their Impact on Public Health Interventions in the Developing World,” in Internal Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, ed. Fredrick Cooper and Randall Packard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 93–115.
- 3.
Ibid. See also Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development,” and Joanna Lewis, Empire State-Building: War And Welfare In Kenya 1925–52 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001), and Helen Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory: Empire, Development, and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, 1870–1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011).
- 4.
Ibid. See also Lewis, Empire State-Building, 79, 86, 105.
- 5.
Ibid., 45.
- 6.
Russell Stafford Viljoen, “Disease, Doctors and De beers Capitalists: Smallpox and Scandal in Colonial Kimberley (South Africa) during the Mineral Revolutions and British Imperialism, c. 1882–1883,” in Biomedicine as a Contested Site: Some Revelations in Imperial Contexts, ed. Poonam Bala (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), 158.
- 7.
Ibid.
- 8.
Amy Kaler, “The White Man in the Bedroom: Contraception and Resistance on Commercial Farms in Colonial Rhodesia,” in Biomedicine as a Contested Site: Some Revelations in Imperial Contexts, ed. Poonam Bala (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), 80.
- 9.
Ibid., 18. See also Frederick Cooper, Africa since 1940: The Past of the Present, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 43–44, 85, and Andrew Burton and Michael Jennings, “The Emperor’s New Clothes?: Continuities in Governance in Late Colonial and Early Post colonial East Africa,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 40, 1 (2007): 1–25.
- 10.
For a detailed discussion of treatment as prevention, see Lachenal, “A Genealogy of Treatment as Prevention (TasP).”
- 11.
Even in the West, confinement and observation was emphasized in treating infections. Michel Foucault has emphasized these aspects, see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995).
- 12.
For a more in-depth discussion of missionary encounters, see Dube, “Medicine without Borders.”
- 13.
Bastos, “Medical Hybridisms and Social Boundaries,” 768.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
Smith, A History of the American Board Missions in Africa, 41. The Witchcraft Suppression Act made it a crime to accuse someone of being a witch.
- 16.
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Archives, Boston, MA, U.S.A. (hereafter, ABC) 15.4, volume 32: Letter from Dr. W. T. Lawrence, Mt. Silinda, Melsetter, Rhodesia, South Africa, May 13th, 1916.
- 17.
Michael Gelfand, Proud Record in Health Services in Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, 1959).
- 18.
Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development,” 94.
- 19.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Relatório mensal da circunscrição de Mossurize, Agosto, 1904, Caixa 259.
- 20.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Relatório da Direcção dos Serviços de Saúde, 1928, Caixa 116, Pasta 2283.
- 21.
NAZ, S2803/FNWS/63: Internal Affairs-Health, 1941 August 5–1948 February 3, Memorandum-Federation of Native Welfare Societies in Southern Rhodesia: National Health Services for Africans, 6th September, 1942.
- 22.
NAZ, S1173/301–304: Medical Missions, 1924–1932, Rev. G. Hardaker, Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference, to the Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, 21st June 1924.
- 23.
NAZ, S2803/FNWS/63: Internal Affairs-Health, 1941 August 5–1948 February 3, Memorandum-Federation of Native Welfare Societies in Southern Rhodesia: National Health Services for Africans, 6th September, 1942.
- 24.
NAZ, S235/502: Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1924.
- 25.
NAZ, S235/502: Report of the Native Commissioner, Melsetter District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1924. Italics reflect my emphasis.
- 26.
NAZ, S235/502: Report of the Native Commissioner, Melsetter District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1926. This was a reference to the medical services of the American Board Mission which established hospitals at Mt. Selinda and Chikore.
- 27.
NAZ, S235/507: Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali District for the year ended the 31st December, 1929.
- 28.
Ibid., Ophthalmia is inflammation of the eye.
- 29.
NAZ, S1173/336: Scheme for Medical Treatment of Natives, by Dr. Askins, Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, 1930. Emphasis added.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
NAZ, S1173/336: Preliminary Report on the Medical Treatment of Natives, R.A. Askins, Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, 8th September, 1930. The fact that the Medical Director relied on anecdotal evidence from an NC demonstrated government failure to collect reliable statistics. Indeed, the government only recorded vital statistics for Europeans in its public health reports. The only data on the African population came from crude estimates of NCs.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
Ibid.
- 38.
Ibid.
- 39.
NAZ, S1173/328–329: A. M. Fleming, Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, to the Colonial Secretary, 25th June, 1924.
- 40.
David Baronov, The African Transformation of Western Medicine and the Dynamics of Global Cultural Exchange (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 115–119.
- 41.
NAZ, S1173/336: “Scheme for the Medical Treatment of Natives”, R.A. Askins, Medical Director, to the Chief Native Commissioner, Southern Rhodesia, 24th December, 1930.
- 42.
NAZ, S1173/328–329: Medical Assistance to Indigenous Natives in Reserves, Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, to The Secretary, Department of the Colonial Secretary, Southern Rhodesia, 9th June, 1927.
- 43.
NAZ, S1173/336: Treatment of Natives, R.A. Askins, Medical Director, to the Secretary, Department of the Colonial Secretary, Southern Rhodesia, 31st October, 1930.
- 44.
Gelfand, A Service to the Sick, 128.
- 45.
Ibid., 129.
- 46.
Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, p. 10.
- 47.
Ibid., See Ann Beck, A Medical History of the British Medical Administration of East Africa, 1900–1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).
- 48.
NAZ, S2827/2/2/2 Annual Report of the Assistant Native Commissioner, Melsetter, for the Year ended 31st December, 1952.
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
NAZ, S2403/2681: Native Commissioners’ Reports, 1952, Report of the Native Commissioner, Chipinga, for the year ended 31st December, 1952.
- 51.
Ibid.
- 52.
NAZ, S2827/2/2/7: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the Year ended 31st December, 1959.
- 53.
Ibid. The Ziwe Zano Society was an indigenous African society.
- 54.
NAZ, S2827/2/2/8: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Chipinga, for the Year ended 31st December, 1961. Note that Americans and Canadians were considered “European” in this case.
- 55.
Gelfand, A Service to the Sick, 100.
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
ABC 15.4 volume 19: Letter from W. L. Thompson, Mt. Selinda to Judson Smith, Boston, MA, April 6, 1894.
- 58.
ABC 15.4 volume 20: Letter from W. L. Thompson, Mt. Selinda to E. E. Strong, Boston, MA, February 18, 1895.
- 59.
ABC 15.4, volume 20: Letter from H.J. Gilson, Secretary, East Central Africa Mission, to Judson Smith, Secretary, ABCFM., Boston, MA., September 24th, 1896. The “unsettled state of affairs” probably involved Zimbabwe’s rebellion against colonial rule, often referred to as the “First Chimurenga.”
- 60.
ABC 15.4, volume 23: Report of the Medical Department, Rhodesian Branch, A.B.M. in S.A., June 31, 1907 to June 31, 1908. The granting of the horse was a result of a request made by white farmers and the missionaries so that Dr. Thompson could “more easily meet the [medical] needs of the district.” However, the horse died in April 1913 due to horse sickness, making long trip to patients difficult to accomplish.
- 61.
ABC 15.4, volume 32: Annual Report, Rhodesian Branch American Board Mission in South Africa for the year ended May 31, 1911. It was a Rhodesian policy to offer treatment for venereal diseases such as syphilis free of charge to Africans. The missionaries reported later in the 1914 annual report that the government had continued to supply medicine for syphilis but the promise of 22 pounds of quinine for routine prophylactic administration “to our school children [had] not been kept, though the Medical Director expressed much interest in the experiment as already tried on a small scale.”
- 62.
ABC 15.4, volume 32: Annual Report, Rhodesian Branch American Board Mission in South Africa for the year ended May 31, 1913.
- 63.
ABC 15.4, volume 25: Letter from H. J. Gilson, Melsetter, Rhodesia to The Prudential Committee of the ABCFM, Boston, MA, December 29th, 1902.
- 64.
Langson Takawira Mahoso, “The Social Impact of Christian Missions in Zimbabwe 1900–1930: A case Study of American Board Mission, Brethren in Christ Mission and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission,” M.A. Thesis (Temple University, 1979), 31.
- 65.
ABC 15.4, volume 32: Report Letter No. 20 from the Mt. Silinda Station, American Board Mission in South Africa, Rhodesian Branch, April 12, 1911.
- 66.
See Dube, “Medicine without Borders.”
- 67.
NAZ, S1173/301–304, “Health and the Native,” Rhodesia Herald, June 5, 1924.
- 68.
NAZ, S1173/328–329, Medical Director to Colonial Secretary, June 9, 1927.
- 69.
Gelfand, A Service to the Sick, 116.
- 70.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, 57.
- 71.
ABC 15.6, volume 2: Reports, 1930–1939—Gogoi Medical Report, June 1933–June 1934. Dr. W. T. Lawrence resigned from the American Board Mission in May 1946. Mission secretary D. U. Marsh wrote to the Registrar of the Medical Council of Southern Rhodesia in March 1946 informing him of the retirement of Dr. Lawrence. The Mission was unable to secure a doctor to replace him and this left its “native medical work of 50 years standing in a difficult position.” See NAZ, S2014/6/3: The American Board Mission, 1925–1947—Letter from D. U. Marsh, Secretary of the American Board Mission, Mount Selinda, to the Registrar of the Medical Council of Southern Rhodesia, March 30th, 1946.
- 72.
Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique, 52–53.
- 73.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Report of the District of Mossurize—Health Services, 1933, box no. 265, file no. 5821. My translations.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Report of the District of Mossurize for the Year 1935. Box no. 266.
- 76.
ABC 15.6, volume 9: Institutions—Mt. Selinda Hospital, Annual Report, 1944. It was common for young men from Mozambique to go to work in the South African mines, but this also shows the neglect that migrant miners faced from mining companies in South Africa. These mining companies simply sent the sick and injured back to their villages and recruit new healthy workers. This was particularly the case with those workers who contracted tuberculosis on the mines. See Packard, White plague, Black Labor and Susan Parnell, “Creating Racial Privilege: The Origins of South African Public Health and Town Planning Legislation,” Journal of Southern African Studies, 19 (1993) 471–488.
- 77.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Report of the District of Mossurize for the Year 1935. Box no. 266.
- 78.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios, Macequece, August, 1904, Caixa 126, Pasta 26636.
- 79.
AHM, FCM, Secretaria Geral—Relatórios: Relatório da circunscrição de Mossurize referente ao Ano de 1938, Caixa 266.
- 80.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, 140.
- 81.
NAZ, S1173/328–329, Medical Director to Colonial Secretary, June 9, 1927.
- 82.
Interview with Mr. T. Mbekwa, Mpanyeya, Mozambique, 14 December, 2006. Although this interviewee links African resistance to hospitalization with colonialism, most elderly people probably thought they would just die in hospitals.
- 83.
ABC 15.4, volume 32: “General Letter in regard to the Work of the Rhodesia Branch of the American Board Mission in South Africa,” May 1910.
- 84.
Ibid.
- 85.
Interview, Maengeni Village, Zimbabwe, 14 January, 2007.
- 86.
ABC 15.4 volume 33: Letter from Dr. W. T. Lawrence, Mt. Selinda, to Rev. J. E. Burton, Secretary ABCFM, Boston, MA, October 6th, 1916.
- 87.
Interview, Beacon Hill, Chipinge District, Zimbabwe, 29 December, 2006.
- 88.
Interview, Zangiro, Mozambique, 23 September, 2006.
- 89.
Interview, Zimunya District, Mutare South, Zimbabwe, 31 July, 2006.
- 90.
Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, 42.
- 91.
Ibid., 7.
- 92.
Ibid., 42.
- 93.
Ibid., 43–44.
- 94.
Ranger, Bulawayo Burning, 49.
- 95.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, 58.
- 96.
Ibid.
- 97.
Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, 41–42.
- 98.
Ibid.
- 99.
White, Speaking with Vampires, 4–5.
- 100.
Patrick Malloy, “Research Material and Necromancy: Imagining the Political Economy of Biomedicine in Colonial Tanganyika,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 47, 3 (2014): 425.
- 101.
Steven Feierman and John M. Janzen, Introduction to The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 18.
- 102.
Ibid.
- 103.
Ibid.
- 104.
John M. Janzen, Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 65.
- 105.
Ibid., 86.
- 106.
Ibid., 95.
- 107.
Interview, Mvududu Village, Mutare South, Zimbabwe, 3 August, 2006.
- 108.
M. V. Bührmann, “Religion and Healing: The African Experience,” in Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa, ed. G. C. Oosthuizen et al., (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), 26–34.
- 109.
W. D. Hammond-Tooke, “The Aetiology of Spirit in Southern Africa,” in Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa, ed. G. C. Oosthuizen et al., (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), 44–65.
- 110.
Ibid., 53.
- 111.
G. C. Oosthuizen, “Indigenous healing within the context of the African Independent Churches,” in Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa, ed. G. C. Oosthuizen et al., (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), 71–90.
- 112.
Ibid.
- 113.
Interview, Old West Mine Compound, Penhalonga, Zimbabwe, 28 August 2006.
- 114.
Bengt Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 55.
- 115.
W. H. Wessels, “Healing practices in the African Independent Churches,” in Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa, ed. G. C. Oosthuizen et al. (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), 91–108.
- 116.
Interview, Tsvingwe Village, Penhalonga, Zimbabwe, 28 August, 2006.
- 117.
Interview, Elim Mission, Penhalonga, Zimbabwe, 29 August, 2006.
- 118.
Interview, Zimunya District, Mutare South, Zimbabwe, 31 July, 2006.
- 119.
Interview, Nehwangura Village, Mutare South, Zimbabwe, 2 August, 2006.
- 120.
Interview, Ngaone, Chipinge, Zimbabwe, 20 October, 2006.
- 121.
John M. Janzen, Ngoma, 92–93.
- 122.
Interview, Elim Mission, Penhalonga, Zimbabwe, 29 August, 2006.
- 123.
W. D. Hammond-Tooke, “The Aetiology of Spirit in Southern Africa,” 53–54.
- 124.
D. Dube, “A Search for Abundant Life: Health, Healing and Wholeness in the Zionist Churches,” in Afro-Christian Religion and Healing in Southern Africa, ed. G. C. Oosthuizen et al., (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), 109–136.
- 125.
ABC 15.4, volume 43: Gogoi Medical Report, June, 1933–June, 1934.
- 126.
Ibid.
- 127.
Phimister, An Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 196–197.
- 128.
Audrey I. Richards, “A Modern Movement of Witch-Finders,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 8, no. 4 (1935): 448. For an extensive discussion of Mucapi, see Max Marwick, Sorcery in its social setting: a study of the Northern Rhodesia Ceŵa (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1965) and W. M. J. van Binsbergen, Religious Change in Zambia: exploratory studies (London: Kegan Paul International, 1981).
- 129.
Karen E. Fields, “Christian missionaries as anticolonial militants,” Theory and Society 11, no. 1 (1982): 104. See also, Karen E. Fields, Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
- 130.
Timothy Scarnecchia, “Mai Chaza’s Guta re Jehova (City of God): healing, reproduction, and urban identity in an African Independent Church” Journal of Southern African Studies 23, no. 1 (1997): 97.
- 131.
NAZ S2827/2/2/4: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the year ended 31st December, 1956.
- 132.
Barbara Moss, “Holding Body and Soul Together: Women, Autonomy and Christianity in Colonial Zimbabwe,” (PhD Thesis, Indiana University, 1991), 165.
- 133.
Kathleen E. Sheldon, Historical Dictionary of women in Sub-Saharan Africa (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2005), 137. See also, Mary-Louise Martin, “The Mai Chaza Church in Rhodesia,” in African Initiatives in Religion, ed. David B. Barret (Nairobi, East African Publishing House, 1971), 109–121; Allan Anderson, African reformation: African initiated Christianity in the 20th century (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2001), 119; Rosalind I. J. Hackett, “Women and New Religious Movements in Africa,” in Religion and Gender, ed. Ursula King (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1995), 257–290; and Scarnecchia, “Mai Chaza’s Guta re Jehova (City of God)”.
- 134.
NAZ S2827/2/2/4: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the year ended 31st December, 1956.
- 135.
NAZ S2827/2/2/6: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the year ended 31st December, 1958.
- 136.
NAZ S2827/2/2/7: Annual Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the year ended 31st December, 1959.
- 137.
NAZ, S1173/328–329: Medical Assistance to Indigenous Natives in Reserves, Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, to The Secretary, Department of the Colonial Secretary, Southern Rhodesia, 9th June, 1927.
- 138.
Interview, Days Hill, Chipinge District, Zimbabwe, December 13, 2006.
- 139.
Interview, Maengeni Village, Chipinge District, Zimbabwe, 14 January, 2007.
- 140.
NAZ S2803/FNWS/61 Internal Affairs-Hospitals, 22nd March 1943–22nd June 1950, Secretary for Native Affairs, to the Medical Director, Southern Rhodesia, 22nd March 1943.
- 141.
For more on racism in Mozambique Company hospitals, see Kathleen Sheldon, “Creating an Archive of Working Women’s Oral Histories in Beira, Mozambique,” in Contesting Archives: Finding Women in the Sources, ed. Napur Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz, and Mary Elizabeth Perry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 201.
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Dube, F. (2020). Borders and the Provision of Health Services for Rural Africans. In: Public Health at the Border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique, 1890–1940. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47535-2_8
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