Abstract
Dube examines the oppression that followed the establishment of colonial rule, such as land alienation, taxation, forced labor, and dipping fees in this chapter. He argues that these, together with border restrictions, contributed to the contestations of the border and colonial authority, as well as low compliance with public health.
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Notes
- 1.
Alexander, The Unsettled Land, 19.
- 2.
Ibid., 29.
- 3.
Palmer, Land and Racial Domination, 65.
- 4.
Allina-Pisano, “Negotiating Colonialism,” 91.
- 5.
Ibid., 123.
- 6.
Ibid.
- 7.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, 92.
- 8.
Ibid. This practice is common in the border region, with people living in Mozambique planting fields in Zimbabwe.
- 9.
Ibid.
- 10.
Rhodesian officials, for instance, reported that the majority of Africans who applied at the Native Commissioner’s office for certificates stated that “they have come from Portuguese territory and wish to live in British!” See NAZ, A3/18/20-22, W. Wood, Recruiter, Chipinga to C. W. Terry, Manager, Shamva, 30 June 1917.
- 11.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, p. 95.
- 12.
Ibid., 96.
- 13.
Gelfand, A Service to the Sick, 45.
- 14.
Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name, 143.
- 15.
NAZ, A3/18/20-22, W. Wood, Recruiter, Chipinga to C. W. Terry, Manager, Shamva, 30 June 1917.
- 16.
NAZ, S235/501 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Review of Reports of Native Commissioners Division III for the Year ended 31st December, 1923.
- 17.
NAZ, S235/502 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1924.
- 18.
Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Maputo (hereafter AHM), Fundo da Companhia de Moçambique (hereafter FCM), Secretaria Geral (SG), Repartição do Gabinete-Processos, 1903–1942, Inquérito sobre a emigração clandestine para o Transval e Rodésia, 1924, Caixa 76, I-35. For an extensive discussion of the labor migration to Rhodesia, see Joel das Neves, O trabalho Migratório de Moçambique para a Rodésia do Sul, 1913–1958/60 (Maputo: Universidade Pedagógica, 1990).
- 19.
Ibid.
- 20.
Hughes, From Enslavement to Environmentalism, 36.
- 21.
Interview, Harare, Zimbabwe, 10 July, 2006.
- 22.
Alexander, The Unsettled Land, 29.
- 23.
AHM, FCM, SG, Repartição do Gabinete-Processos, 1903–1942, Inquérito sobre a emigração clandestine para o Transval e Rodésia, 1924, Caixa 76, I-35.
- 24.
Rennie, “Christianity, Colonialism and the Origins of Nationalism,” 198.
- 25.
Allen Isaacman, “Coercion, Paternalism and the Labour process: The Mozambican cotton regime 1938–1961,” Journal of Southern African Studies 18, no. 3 (1992): 486–526.
- 26.
NAZ, S235/502 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali District and Melsetter sub-District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1925. “Crown Land” was land not yet apportioned, thus considered to belong to the Queen.
- 27.
NAZ, S235/504 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Melsetter District and Melsetter sub-District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1926.
- 28.
NAZ, S235/507 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali District, for the Year ended 31st December, 1929.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
NAZ, S235/511 Volume III: Native Commissioners Reports, Report of the Native Commissioner for the Melsetter District for the Year ended 31st December, 1933.
- 31.
AHM, FCM, Negocios Indigenas-Processos, Caixa 26, Pasta 166-Trabalho Indigena-Diversos Assuntos, O Chefe de Mossurize para Exmo. Senhor, Diretor dos Negocios Indigenas, Beira, 15 April 1937.
- 32.
NAZ, S235/516 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Chipinga, for the Year ended 31st December, 1938.
- 33.
NAZ, S235/516 District Reports: Native Commissioners, Report of the Native Commissioner, Umtali, for the Year ended 31st December, 1938. While claims of insufficient land were reasonable, the strong demand for migrant Portuguese African labor contributed to denials of permission to settle in Rhodesia. Rhodesian officials feared that if Portuguese migrants settled in the colony, they soon would shun the farms and mines just like the local villagers and result in labor shortages.
- 34.
Richard Hodder-Williams, White Farmers in Rhodesia, 1890–1965: A history of the Marandellas District (London: Macmillan, 1983), 166.
- 35.
NAZ, S1051 Native Commissioners Reports: Report of the Clerk in charge, Native Department, Penhalonga, for the quarter ended 31st December, 1947.
- 36.
NAZ, S2827/2/2/3 Native Commissioners Reports: Annual Report for the Year ended 31st December, 1955. Native Commissioner, Melsetter.
- 37.
NAZ S2827/2/2/8 Annual District Report, Melsetter, 1961, vol. II.
- 38.
Lunstrum, “State Rationality, Development, and the Making of State Territory,” 115. See also Margaret Hall and Tom Young. Confronting Leviathan: Mozambique Since Independence (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1997), Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique, Alex Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), and Ken Wilson, “Cults of Violence and Counter-Violence in Mozambique,” Journal of Southern African Studies 18 (1992): 527–582.
- 39.
Group interview, Chambuta, Mozambique, 22 September 2006. Many interviewees in Mozambique cited the problems they encountered while attempting to cross the border. After the Zimbabwean war of independence (Second Chimurenga) commenced in the 1970s, the colonial government planted landmines along the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border to prevent the movement of Africans to and from training camps in Mozambique (had just gained its independence in 1975). The colonial government closely monitored the official entry points to the extent that Mozambicans who were facing famine could not easily cross to get food from Zimbabwe. They therefore resorted to using the mine-infested bush paths. Many interviewees indicated that they knew of the dangers but there was no alternative. Many domestic and wild animals were also caught up in these mine-infested areas.
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Dube, F. (2020). Colonial Border Restrictions and the African Response. In: Public Health at the Border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique, 1890–1940. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47535-2_4
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