Abstract
In this chapter Dube introduces the concept of a contested border and, in a novel way, explores the utility of the border as a theoretical, methodological, and interpretive construct for understanding colonial public health.
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Notes
- 1.
The names Zimbabwe and Southern Rhodesia/Rhodesia are used interchangeably in this book. The same applies to Mozambique and Portuguese East Africa. Other countries discussed in this book are Malawi (Nyasaland) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia). The portion of Mozambique under study, central Mozambique, was governed by the chartered Mozambique Company for much of the period under analysis, from 1890 to 1942, while Zimbabwe was under British South Africa Company rule from 1890 to 1923, when Responsible Government took over.
- 2.
The choice of fieldwork sites for this study reflects an attempt to include these different environmental zones, including micro-environments, upland plateaus, lowlands, areas of high and low rainfall, and various zones of flora and fauna. The area under focus in Zimbabwe stretches from Pungwe River in the north, down to where the Save River crosses into Mozambique. Its western edge is demarcated by the Odzi and Save Rivers in Zimbabwe and it encloses the Mutare, Chimanimani, and Chipinge districts. In Mozambique, it roughly encompasses the western portions of Manica, Sussundenga, and Mossurize districts. This border region generally falls into areas inhabited by the eastern Shona people, with the Manyika in the north and the Ndau in the south. The major urban centers are Mutare (Umtali), Penhalonga (a gold mine), Chipinge (Melsetter/Chipinga), and Chimanimani (originally a sub-district of Melsetter district) in Zimbabwe. The major towns on the Mozambican side are Manica (Macequece/Masekesa/Massi-Kessi), Espungabera (Spungabera) in Mossurize (Musirizwi Umselezwe/Umsilizi /Mossurise) district, and Sussundenga. While this book focuses on the period from 1890 to 1940, it also includes occasional references to the pre-1890 and post-1940 periods.
- 3.
Eric Allina-Pisano, ‘Borderlands, Boundaries, and the Contours of Colonial Rule: African Labor in Manica District, Mozambique, c. 1904–1908,’ International Journal of African Historical Studies 36, 1 (2003), pp. 59–82.
- 4.
See, for example, Francis Dube, “‘In the Border Regions of the Territory of Rhodesia, There is the Greatest Scourge …’: The Border and East Coast Fever Control in Central Mozambique and Eastern Zimbabwe, 1901–1942,” Journal of Southern African Studies 41, 2 (2015): 219–235.
- 5.
Steven Feierman and John M. Janzen, introduction to The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 18.
- 6.
Ruth J. Prince, “Introduction: Situating Health and the Public in Africa,” in Making and Unmaking of Public Health in Africa: Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives, ed. Ruth J. Prince and Rebecca Marsland (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014), 1–2. See also Milcah Amolo Achola, “The Public Health Ordinance Policy of the Nairobi Municipal/City Council 1945–62,” in African Historians and African Voices: Essays presented of Professor Bothwell Allan Ogot, ed. E. S. Atieno Odhiambo (Basel: P. Schlettwein Publishing, 2001), 115, and Maryinez Lyons, “Public Health in Colonial Africa: The Belgian Congo,” in The History of Public Health and the Modern State, ed. Dorothy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994), 357.
- 7.
Michael H. Merson et al., International Public Health: Diseases, Programs, Systems, and Policies (Gaithersburg: Aspen Publishers, 2001), xvii–xxx.
- 8.
Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness and Colonialism in Southwest Nigeria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 116.
- 9.
Jean-Germain Gros, Healthcare Policy in Africa: Institutions and Politics from Colonialism to the Present (Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), 40.
- 10.
Guillaume Lachenal, The Lomidine Files: The Untold Story of a Medical Disaster in Colonial Africa (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 5.
- 11.
For instance, after his treatment in a hospital in Paris, France, in 1929 stricken with pneumonia, George Orwell recounted how doctors and students performed procedures on him without even talking to him. See George Orwell, “How the Poor Die,” http://orwell.ru/library/articles/Poor_Die/english/e_pdie (8 August 2014).
- 12.
George Oduor Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2001), 1–2.
- 13.
Tracy J. Luedke and Harry G. West, “Healing Divides: Therapeutic Border Work in Southeast Africa,” in Borders and Healers: Brokering Therapeutic Resources in Southeast Africa, ed. Tracy J. Luedke and Harry G. West (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2006), 4. See also Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution. Volume Two, The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 364, Adam Mohr “Missionary Medicine and Akan Therapeutics: Illness, Health and Healing in Southern Ghana’s Basel Mission, 1828–1918,” Journal of Religion in Africa 39 (2009): 437, Francis Dube, “Medicine without Borders: the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in central Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, 1893–1920s,” OFO: Journal of Transatlantic Studies 4, 2 (2014): 21–38, Webb, Jr. and Tamara Giles-Vernick, “Introduction,” in Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease, ed. James L. A. Webb, Jr. and Tamara Giles-Vernick (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013), 4, Steven Feierman and John Janzen, ed., Health and Healing in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), John Janzen, The Quest for Therapy: Medical Pluralism in Lower Zaire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), Julie Livingston, Debility and the Moral Imagination in Botswana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), Cristiana Bastos, “Medical Hybridisms and Social Boundaries: Aspects of Portuguese Colonialism in Africa and India in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Southern African Studies 33, 4 (2007): 767, and Pier Larson, “‘Capacities and Modes of Thinking’: Intellectual Engagements and Subaltern Hegemony in the Early History of Malagasy Christianity,” American Historical Review 102, 4 (October 1997): 969–1002.
- 14.
R. Menzies, I. Rocher, and B. Vissandjee, “Factors Associated with compliance in Treatment of Tuberculosis,” Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 74 (1993): 36.
- 15.
Paul Farmer, Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1999), 225–227.
- 16.
James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, 1985).
- 17.
Elisha P. Renne, The Politics of Polio in Northern Nigeria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010). On distrust of government in the era of Boko Haram, see Elisha P. Renne, “Parallel Dilemmas: Polio Transmission and Political Violence in Northern Nigeria,” Africa 84, 3 (2014): 466–486.
- 18.
Renne, The Politics of Polio, 11, 24.
- 19.
Ibid., 14.
- 20.
Ibid., 87.
- 21.
Ibid., 86.
- 22.
Ibid., 87–88.
- 23.
Shaunagh Connaire, “Ebola Outbreak” transcript, PBS Frontline, July 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/health-science-technology/ebola-outbreak/transcript-67/ (24 December 2014). See also Jason Beaubien, “Rumor Patrol: No, A Snake In A Bag Did Not Cause Ebola,” NPR, July 22, 2014, http://www.npr.org/blogs/goatsandsoda/2014/07/22/334022357/rumor-patrol-no-a-snake-in-a-bag-did-not-cause-ebola (24 December 2014).
- 24.
Mary Moran and Daniel Hoffman, “Ebola in Perspective,” Fieldsights – Hot Spots, Cultural Anthropology Online, October 07, 2014, http://www.culanth.org/fieldsights/585-ebola-in-perspective (24 December 2014).
- 25.
Mike McGovern, “Bushmeat and the Politics of Disgust,” Fieldsights – Hot Spots, Cultural Anthropology Online, October 07, 2014, http://www.culanth.org/fieldsights/588-bushmeat-and-the-politics-of-disgust (24 December 2014), Paul Richards and Alfred Mokuwa, “Village Funerals and the Spread of Ebola Virus Disease.” Fieldsights – Hot Spots, Cultural Anthropology Online, October 07, 2014, http://www.culanth.org/fieldsights/590-village-funerals-and-the-spread-of-ebola-virus-disease (24 December 2014), and Catherine E. Bolten, “Articulating the Invisible: Ebola Beyond Witchcraft in Sierra Leone,” Fieldsights – Hot Spots, Cultural Anthropology Online, October 07, 2014, http://www.culanth.org/fieldsights/596-articulating-the-invisible-ebola-beyond-witchcraft-in-sierra-leone (24 December 2014).
- 26.
See also Jonathan Sadowsky, “The long Shadow of Colonialism: Why We Study Medicine in Africa,” in Medicine and Healing in Africa: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Paula Viterbo and Kalala Ngalamulume (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010), p. 211 and Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam, 116.
- 27.
Gloria Waite, “Public Health in Pre-colonial East-Central Africa,” in The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa, ed. Steven Feierman and John M. Janzen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 212–231.
- 28.
Ibid. See also Rebecca Marsland, “Who Are the ‘Public’ in Public Health?: Debating Crowds, Populations, and Publics in Tanzania,” in Making and Unmaking of Public Health in Africa: Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives, ed. Ruth J. Prince and Rebecca Marsland (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014), 75–95, Murray Last, “Understanding Health,” in Culture and Global Change, ed. Tim Allen and Tracy Skelton, 72–86 (London: Routledge, 1999), Steven Feierman, “Colonizers, Scholars and the Creation of Invisible Histories,” in Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, ed. Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 182–216; and Livingstone, Debility and the Moral Imagination in Botswana, 17.
- 29.
Prince, “Introduction: Situating Health and the Public in Africa,” 16. See also Steven Feierman, “On Socially Composed Knowledge: Reconstructing a Shambaa Royal Ritual,” in In Search of A Nation: Histories of Authority and Dissidence in Tanzania, ed. James L. Giblin and Gregory H. Maddox (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2005), 14–32.
- 30.
Ibid. The ruling elites included religious figures and chiefs who held power over land, its fertility, and its vitality through their persons, their use of medicines, and their control over ritual through their authority over healers and spirit mediums, rain-making, and witchcraft. With this power, they could cleanse the land and persons of pollution but could also limit growth and fertility. However, these elites could be deposed if they were unable or unwilling to respond to misfortune, and healers were not always close to those in political power; they could undermine such power or destabilize it. See also Feierman, “On Socially Composed Knowledge: Reconstructing a Shambaa Royal Ritual,” 14–32.
- 31.
These fears were not confined to Southern Africa. They were present in many African societies. For East Africa, see Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, 6 and Luise White, Speaking with Vampires: Rumor and History in Colonial Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 89.
- 32.
Interview, Vheremu, Zimbabwe, December 24, 2016.
- 33.
Markku Hokkanen, Medicine, Mobility and the Empire: Nyasaland Networks, 1859–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017), 2.
- 34.
See Luedke and West, “Healing Divides,” 3–4.
- 35.
Yakubu Joseph and Rainer Rothfuss, “Symbolic Bordering and the Securitization of Identity Markers in Nigeria’s Ethno-Religiously Segregated City of Jos,” in Reece Jones and Corey Johnson (eds), Placing the Border in Everyday Life (Surrey: Ashgate, 2014): 167.
- 36.
Ibid. See also Ronen Shamir, “Without Borders? Notes on Globalization as a Mobility Regime,” Sociological Theory 23, 2 (2005): 200.
- 37.
See, for example, S. Berry, “Crossing boundaries, Debating African Studies,” Paper presented at the Fifth Annual Penn African Studies Workshop (October 17, 1997), available at http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Workshop/sara.html, retrieved on 20 August 2013, Eric Allina-Pisano, “Borderlands, Boundaries, and the Contours of Colonial Rule,” Patrick Harries, Work, Culture, and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c. 1860–1910 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 1994), A. I. Asiwaju, “Migrations as Revolt: The Example of the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta before 1945,” Journal of African History, 17, 4 (1976), pp. 577–594.
- 38.
Maxim Bolt, “Waged Entrepreneurs, Policed Informality: Work, the Regulation of Space and the Economy of the Zimbabwean–South African Border,” Africa, 82, 1 (2012), p. 112. See also, van Schendel, W, “Spaces of Engagement: How Borderlands, Illegal Flows and Territorial States Interlock,” in I. Abraham and W. van Schendel (eds), Illicit Flows and Criminal Things: States, Borders, and the Other Side of Globalization (Bloomington IN, Indiana University Press, 2005), pp. 38–68, H. Cunningham and J. Heyman, “Introduction: Mobilities and Enclosures at Borders,” Identities 11, 2 (2004): 289–302, and Blair Rutherford, “The Politics of Boundaries: The Shifting Terrain of Belonging for Zimbabweans in a South African Border Zone,” African Diaspora: Transnational Journal of Culture, Economy & Society 4, 2 (2011): 207–229.
- 39.
Allina-Pisano, “Borderlands, Boundaries, and the Contours of Colonial rule,” p. 60. See also Eric Allina-Pisano, “Negotiating Colonialism: Africans, the State, and the Market in Manica District, Mozambique, 1895–c. 1935” (PhD thesis, Yale University, 2002) and Eric Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name: African Life Under Company Rule in Colonial Mozambique (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012). See also Ana Cristina Roque, “A History of Mozambique’s Southern Border: The Archives of the Portuguese Commission of Cartography,” in Steven Van Wolputte (ed.) Borderlands and Frontiers in Africa (Berlin: LIT VERLAG Dr. W. Hopf, 2013), 23–54, Dereje Feyissa and Markus Virgil Hoehne, “State Borders and Borderlands as Resources,” in Dereje Feyissa and Markus Virgil Hoehne (eds.) Borders and Borderlands as Resources in the Horn of Africa (Suffolk: James Currey, 2010), p. 1–7, Steven Van Wolputte, “Introduction: Living the Border,” in Steven Van Wolputte (ed.) Borderlands and Frontiers in Africa (Berlin: LIT VERLAG Dr. W. Hopf, 2013), 2, V. Das and D. Poole, “State and its Margins: Comparative ethnographies,” in V. Das and D. Poole (eds) Anthropology in the Margins of the State (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004), 3–33, Ana L. Tsing, “From the margins,” Cultural Anthropology 9, 3 (1994): 279–297, Benedikt Korff and Timothy Raeymaekers, “Introduction: Border, Frontier and the Geography of Rule at the Margins of the State,” in Benedikt Korff and Timothy Raemaekers (eds.) Violence on the Margins: States, Conflict, and Borderlands (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 4, and Karen Büscher and Gillian Mathys, “Navigating the Urban ‘In-Between Space’: Local Livelihood and Identity Strategies in Exploiting the Goma/Gisenyi Border,” in Benedikt Korff and Timothy Raemaekers (eds.) Violence on the Margins: States, Conflict, and Borderlands (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 120.
- 40.
See, for example, A. I. Asiwaju (ed.), Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa’s International Boundaries, 1884–1984 (New York, St. Martins, 1985).
- 41.
See also James L. A. Webb, Jr., “The First Large-Scale Use of Synthetic Insecticide for Malaria Control in Tropical Africa: Lessons from Liberia, 1945–62,” in Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease, ed. James L. A. Webb, Jr. and Tamara Giles-Vernick (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013), 12. This is similar to what the British experienced in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, where medical and administrative personnel faced the contradiction of public health’s need for impermeable borders in contrast to the socio-economic need for permeable ones, see Heather Bell, Frontiers of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1899–1940 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), 10.
- 42.
See also Francis Dube, “‘In the Border Regions.’”
- 43.
David Hughes, From Enslavement to Environmentalism: Politics on a Southern African Frontier (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2006), 76.
- 44.
Ibid., 76–77.
- 45.
Allina-Pisano, ‘Borderlands, Boundaries, and the Contours of Colonial rule’, 60. See also Allina-Pisano, “Negotiating Colonialism,” and Allina, Slavery By Any Other Name. See also Roque, “A History of Mozambique’s Southern Border,” Feyissa and Hoehne, “State Borders and Borderlands as Resources,” 1–7, Van Wolputte, “Introduction: Living the Border,” 2, Das and Poole, “State and its Margins,” 3–33, Tsing, “From the margins,” Korff and Raeymaekers, “Introduction,” 4, and Büscher and Mathys, “Navigating the Urban ‘In-Between Space.’” 120.
- 46.
See, for example, David Baronov, The African Transformation of Western Medicine and the Dynamics of Global Cultural Exchange (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, Tracy J. Luedke and Harry G. West, “Healing Divides,” 4. See also Comaroff and Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution. Volume Two, 364, Adam Mohr “Missionary Medicine and Akan Therapeutics: Illness, Health and Healing in Southern Ghana’s Basel Mission, 1828–1918,” Journal of Religion in Africa 39 (2009): 437, Steven Feierman and John Janzen, ed., Health and Healing in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), Janzen, The Quest for Therapy, Julie Livingston, Debility and the Moral Imagination in Botswana, Bastos, “Medical Hybridisms and Social Boundaries,” 767, and Larson, “‘Capacities and Modes of Thinking,’” 4.
- 47.
Ryan Johnson and Khalid Amna (eds.), Public Health in the British Empire: Intermediaries, Subordinates, and the Practice of Public Health, 1850–1960 (New York: Routledge, 2012).
- 48.
James L. A. Webb, Jr. and Tamara Giles-Vernick, ed., Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013).
- 49.
Ruth J. Prince and Rebecca Marsland, ed., Making and Unmaking of Public Health in Africa: Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014).
- 50.
See, for example, Anne Digby, Waltraud Ernst, and Projit B. Mukharji, ed., Crossing Colonial Historiographies: Histories of Colonial and Indigenous Medicines in Transnational Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010), Frederick Cooper and Ann Stoler, ed., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in A Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), Deborah J. Neill, Networks in Tropical Medicine: Internationalism, Colonialism, and the Rise of a Medical Specialty, 1890–1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012), and Alison Bashford, ed., Medicine at the Border: Disease, Globalization and Security, 1850 to the Present (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
- 51.
See, for example, Neill, Networks in Tropical Medicine.
- 52.
Alison Bashford, “‘The Age of Universal Contagion’: History, Disease and Globalization,” in Alison Bashford, ed., Medicine at the Border: Disease, Globalization and Security, 1850 to the Present (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 2. See Bell, Frontiers of Medicine, 4.
- 53.
Bell, Frontiers of Medicine, 233.
- 54.
D. M. Blair, Foreword to A Service to the Sick: A History of the Health Services for Africans in Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1953 (Gwelo: Mambo Press, 1976), 6–8.
- 55.
Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam, 116. See, for example, David Arnold. Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), David Arnold, “Introduction: Disease, Medicine and Empire,” in Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies, ed. David Arnold (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 16, and John Comaroff and Jean Comaroff, Of revelation and revolution: Christianity, colonialism, and consciousness in South Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), and Francis Dube, “Medicine without Borders.”
- 56.
Guillaume Lachenal, “Experimental Hubris and Medical Powerlessness: Notes from a Colonial Utopia, Cameroon, 1939–1949,” in Rethinking Biomedicine and Governance in Africa: Contributions from Anthropology, ed. Paul Wenzel Geissler, Richard Rottenburg, and Julia Zenker (Bielefeld: Verlag, 2012), 119.
- 57.
Ibid. See also Meghan Vaughan, “Healing and Curing Issues in the Social History and Anthropology of Medicine in Africa,” Social History of Medicine 7, 2 (1994): 288.
- 58.
Lyons, “Public Health in Colonial Africa,” 356.
- 59.
Myron Echenberg, Black Death, White Medicine: Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal, 1914–1945 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002), 4.
- 60.
Sadowsky, “The long Shadow of Colonialism,” 210. See also Adell Patton, Jr., Physicians, Colonial Racism, and Diaspora in West Africa (Gainesville: University of Florida, 1996).
- 61.
Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam, 116.
- 62.
Ndege, Health, State, and Society in Kenya, 2.
- 63.
Achola, “The Public Health Ordinance Policy,” 114–115.
- 64.
Arnold, “Introduction,” 7–8.
- 65.
Ibid., 16. See also Martin Shapiro, “Medicine in the service of colonialism: medical care in Portuguese Africa, 1885–1974” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1983), Roy MacLeod, preface to Disease, Medicine, Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (New York: Routledge, 1988), x and Spencer H. Brown, “A Tool of Empire: The British Medical Establishment in Lagos, 1861–1905,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 37, 2 (2004): 309.
- 66.
Poonam Bala and Amy Kaler, “Introduction: Contested ‘Ventures’: Explaining Biomedicine in Colonial Contexts,” in Biomedicine as a Contested Site: Some Revelations in Imperial Contexts, ed. Poonam Bala (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), 3.
- 67.
Prince, “Introduction: Situating Health and the Public in Africa,” 13. See also White, Speaking with Vampires, Nancy Rose Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon: Of Birth Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobility in the Congo (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), Steven Feierman, “Colonizers, Scholars and the Creation of Invisible Histories,” in Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture, ed. Victoria E. Bonnell and Lynn Hunt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 182–216.
- 68.
Randall Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development and Their Impact on Public Health Interventions in the Developing World,” in Internal Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, ed. Fredrick Cooper and Randall Packard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 95. See also Megan Vaughan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), Michael Worboys, “The Emergence of Tropical Medicine,” in Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines, ed. Gerald Lemaine, et al. (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), 75–98, Michael Worboys, “The Discovery of Colonial Malnutrition between the Wars,” in Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies, ed. David Arnold (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 208–223, John Farley, Bilharzia: A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), L. Doyal, The Political Economy of Health (London: Pluto Press, 1979), and James L. A. Webb, Jr. and Tamara Giles-Vernick, “Introduction,” 1–2. See also W. Penn Handwerker, Foreword to Indigenous Theories of Contagious Disease (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1999), 7.
- 69.
Prince, “Introduction: Situating Health and the Public in Africa,” 17. See also Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development,” 93–115 and Michael Gelfand, A Service to the Sick: A History of the Health Services for Africans in Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1953 (Gwelo: Mambo Press, 1976), 40.
- 70.
See, for example, Vaughan, Curing Their Ills and White, Speaking with Vampires.
- 71.
Packard, “Visions of Postwar Health and Development,” 93–115.
- 72.
See, for example, Gelfand, A Service to the Sick and Michael Gelfand, Proud Record in Health Services in Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, 1959.
- 73.
See John Ford. The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology: a Study of the Tsetse Fly Problem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).
- 74.
Feierman, “Struggles for Control,” 12.
- 75.
See, for example, Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
- 76.
Ryan Johnson and Amna Khalid, “Introduction,” in Public Health in the British Empire: Intermediaries, Subordinates, and the Practice of Public Health, 1850–1960, ed. Ryan Johnson and Amna Khalid (Routledge: New York, 2012), 2.
- 77.
See, for example, Anne Digby and Helen Sweet, “Nurses as Cultural Brokers in Twentieth-Century South Africa,” in Plural Medicine, Tradition and Modernity, 1800–2000, ed. Waltraud Ernst (London: Routledge, 2002), 113–129.
- 78.
See, for example, Anne Digby, Waltraud Ernst, and Projit B. Mukharji, ed., Crossing Colonial Historiographies.
- 79.
Johnson and Khalid, “Introduction,” 12. See also, Waltraud Ernst, ed., Plural Medicine, Tradition and Modernity, 1800–2000 (London: Routledge, 2002) and Karen Flint, Healing Traditions: African Medicine, Cultural Exchange, and Competition in South Africa, 1820–1948 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008).
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Dube, F. (2020). Introduction. In: Public Health at the Border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique, 1890–1940. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47535-2_1
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