Abstract
The Introduction discusses the epistemological and methodological issues pertaining to the external scholar’s capacity to describe a community, or more adequately, an epistemic community wherein he or she is not a member. Drawing on anthropological literature and the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss in particular, the current study is staged as an exploration of the video game development community, and more specifically the so-called indie community that produces digital artefacts that the author knows very little about. The study is thus introduced as an exploration of a domain of unfamiliar expertise and an idiosyncratic professional and community-based culture. The chapter presents the study design and the empirical data collection and data analysis activities, and describes the content of the volume.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The concept technological frame was introduced in science and technology studies and comprises, Bijker (1995: 123) writes, “all elements that influence the interactions within relevant social groups and lead to the attribution of meanings to technical artefacts.” That is, the technological frame constitutes the technology as what it practically speaking is. In Pinch and Trocco’s (2002: 309–310) more recent use of the term, a technological frame “captures the way a whole series of practices, ideas, and values get built around a technology.” Importantly in this context, the technological frame “includes both the ways technologies are produced and the ways they are used and consumed.”
References
Aaseth, E. (2001 [2003]). We all want to change the world: The ideology of innovation in digital media. In G. Liestøl, A. Morrison, & T. Rasmussen (Eds.), Digital media revisited (pp. 415–439). Cambridge and London: MIT Press.
Adler, P. A. (1985). Wheeling and dealing: An ethnography of an upper-level drug dealing and smuggling community. New York: Columbia University Press.
Agar, M. H. (1996). The professional stranger: An informal introduction to ethnography (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
Anderson, C., & Robey, D. (2017). Affordance potency: Explaining the actualization of technology affordances. Information and Organization, 27(2), 100–115.
Aoyama, Y., & Izushi, H. (2003). Hardware gimmick or cultural innovation? Technological, cultural, and social foundations of the Japanese video game industry. Research Policy, 32(3), 423–444.
Barley, S. R. (1986). Technology as an occasion of structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 78–108.
Barley, S. S., & Kunda, G. (2004). Gurus, warm bodies and hired guns: Itinerant experts in the knowledge economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Barry, A. (2001). Political machines: Governing a technological society. London: Athlone.
Becker, H. S. (1992). Cases, causes, conjunctures, stories, and imagery. In C. C. Ragin & H. S. Becker (Eds.), What is a case?: Rexploring the foundations of social inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Becker, H. S. (2009). How to find out how to do qualitative research. International Journal of Communication, 3, 545–553.
Bijker, W. E. (1995). Of bicycles, bakelites, and bulbs: Toward a theory of sociotechnical change. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press.
Bok, D. (2002). Universities in the marketplace: The commercialization of higher education. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Boucher, M.-P. (2012). Infra-psychic individualization: Transductive connections and the genesis of living techniques. In A. De Boever, A. Murray, J. Roffe, & A. Woodward (Eds.), Gilbert Simondon: Being and technology (pp. 93–109). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Burawoy, M. (1979). Manufacturing consent: Changes in the labour process under monopoly capitalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Canguilhem, G. (2008). Knowledge of life (S. Geroulanos & D. Ginsburg, Trans.). New York: Fordham University Press.
Carnes, N. (2013). White-collar government: The hidden role of class in economic policy making. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. I., Lee, J. H., & Clark, N. (2017). Why video game genres fail: A classificatory analysis. Games and Culture, 12(5), 445–465.
Cohendet, P., & Simon, L. (2007). Playing across the playground: Paradoxes of knowledge creation in the video game industry. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(5), 587–605.
Cohendet, P., Grandadam, D., & Simon, L. (2010). The anatomy of the creative city. Industry and Innovation, 7(1), 91–111.
Cohn, S. (2004). Increasing resolution, intensifying ambiguity: An ethnographic account of seeing life in brain scans. Economy and Society, 33(1), 52–76.
Coleman, S., & Dyer-Witheford, N. (2007). Playing on the digital commons: Collectivities, capital and contestation in videogame culture. Media, Culture & Society, 29(6), 934–953.
Comi, A., & Whyte, J. (2018). Future making and visual artefacts: An ethnographic study of a design project. Organization Studies, 39(8), 1055–1083.
Constable, N. (1997). Maid to order in Hong Kong: Stories of Filippina workers. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Crogan, P. (2018). Indie dreams: Video games, creative economy, and the hyperindustrial epoch. Games and Culture, 13(7), 671–689.
Cunliffe, A. L. (2003). Reflexive inquiry in organizational research: Questions and possibilities. Human Relations, 56(8), 983–1003.
Dalton, M. (1959). Men who manage: Fusion of feeling and theory in administration. New York: Wiley.
Dean, D. S. (2015). Hitting reset: Devising a new video game copyright regime. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 164, 1239–1280.
Delbridge, R. (1998). Life on the line in contemporary manufacturing: The workplace experience of lean production and the ‘Japanese model’. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Denis, J., & Pontille, D. (2015). Material ordering and the care of things. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 40(3), 338–367.
Downer, J. (2007). When the chick hits the fan: Representativeness and reproducibility in technological tests. Social Studies of Science, 37(1), 7–26.
Duras, M. (2011 [1993]). Writing (M. Polizzotti, Trans.). Minneapolis and London: The University of Minnesota Press.
Elsbach, K. D., & Bhattacharya, C. B. (2001). Defining what you are by at you’re not: Organizational disidentifiation and the National Rifle Association. Organization Science, 12, 393–413.
Espeland, W. N., & Stevens, M. L. (1998). Commensuration as a social process. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 13–24.
Faulkner, P., & Runde, J. (2009). On the identity of technological objects and user innovation in function. Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 442–462.
Fine, G.-A. (1996). Reputational entrepreneurs and the memory of incompetence: Melting supporters, partisan warriors, and images of President Harding. American Journal of Sociology, 101, 159–1193.
Franklin, S., & Roberts, C. (2006). Born and made: An ethnography of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Princeton and London: Princeton University Press.
Franz, K. (2005). Tinkering: Customers invent the early automobile. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Geertz, C. (1995). After the fact: Two countries, four decades, one anthropologist. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gouldner, A. W. (1954). Patterns of industrial bureaucracy. Glencoe: The Free Press.
Grandadam, D., Cohendet, P., & Simon, L. (2013). Places, spaces and the dynamics of creativity: The video game industry in Montreal. Regional Studies, 47(10), 1701–1714.
Hertz, E. (1998). The trading crowd: An ethnography of the Shanghai Stock market. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ho, K. (2009). Liquidated. An ethnography of Wall Street. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Holmes, M. (2010). The emotionalization of reflexivity. Sociology, 44(1), 139–154.
Ingold, T. (1999). ‘Tools for the hand, language for the face’: An appreciation of Leroi-Gourhan’s Gesture and Speech. Studies in the History and Philosophy of the Biological & Biomedical Sciences, 30(4), 411–453.
Jagoda, P. (2018). On difficulty in video games: Mechanics, interpretation, affect. Critical Inquiry, 45, 199–233.
Jaques, E. (1951). The changing culture of a factory. London: Tavistock Publications.
Jemielniak, D. (2014). Common knowledge: An ethnography of Wikipedia. Stanford University: Press.
Johns, J. (2006). Video games production networks: Value capture, power relations and embeddedness. Journal of Economic Geography, 6(2), 151–180.
Jordan, K., & Lynch, M. (1992). The sociology of a genetic engineering technique: Ritual and rationality in the performance of the “plasmic prep”. In A. E. Clarke & J. H. Fujimura (Eds.), The right tools for the job. At work in Twentieth-century life sciences (pp. 77–114). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Jørgensen, K., Sandqvist, U., & Sotamaa, O. (2017). From hobbyists to entrepreneurs: On the formation of the Nordic game industry. Convergence, 23(5), 457–476.
Keogh, B. (2014). Across worlds and bodies: Criticism in the age of video games. Journal of Games Criticism, 1(1), 1–26.
Keogh, B. (2015). Between Triple-A, indie, casual, and DIY. In K. Oakley & J. O’Connor (Eds.), The Routledge companion to the cultural industries (pp. 152–162). Abingdon: Routledge.
Knorr Cetina, K. D. (1983). The ethnographic study of scientific work: Towards a constructivist interpretation of science. In K. Cetina, D. Karin, & M. Mulkay (Eds.), Science observed: Perspectives on the social study of science (pp. 115–140). London, Beverly Hills, and New Delhi: Sage.
Korczynski, M. (2011a). The dialectical sense of humour: Routine joking in a Taylorized factory. Organization Studies, 32(10), 1421–1439.
Korczynski, M. (2011b). Stayin’ alive on the shop-floor: An ethnography of the dialectics of music use in the workplace. Poetics, 39, 87–106.
Latour, B. (1991). Technology is society made durable. In J. Law (Ed.), A sociology of monsters: Essays on power, technology and domination. London and New York: Routledge.
Law, J. (1994). Organizing modernity. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell.
Leidner, R. (1993). Fast food, fast talk: Service work and the routinization of everyday life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Leroi-Gourhan, A. (1993 [1964]). Gesture and speech. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1955 [1973]). Tristes tropiques. London: Penguin.
Lipkin, N. (2013). Examining. Indie’s independence: The meaning of “Indie” games, the politics of production, and mainstream co-optation, Loading… The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association, 7(11), 8–24.
Lynch, M. (2000). Against reflexivity as an academic virture and source of privileged knowledge, Theory. Culture and Society, 17(3), 26–54.
Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press.
March, J. G. (1978). Bounded rationality, ambiguity, and the engineering of choice. Bell Journal of Economics, 9(2), 587–608.
Mauthner, N. S., & Doucet, A. (2003). Reflexive accounts and accounts of reflexivity in qualitative data analysis. Sociology, 37(3), 413–431.
Mears, A. (2015). Working for free in the VIP: Relational work and the production of consent. American Sociological Review, 80(6), 1099–1122.
Molesworth, M., & Watkins, R. D. (2014). Adult videogame consumption as individualised, episodic progress. Journal of Consumer Culture, 16(2), 510–530.
O’Donnel, C. (2014). Developer’s dilemma: The secret world of videogame creators. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Orr, J. E. (1996). Talking about machines: An ethnography of a modern job. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Pagano, U., & Rossi, M. A. (2009). The crash of the knowledge economy. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 33(4), 665–683.
Paules, G. F. (1991). Dishing it out; Power and resistance among waitresses in a New Jersey Restaurant. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Pels, D. (2000). Reflexiviy: One step up, Theory. Culture and Society, 17(3), 1–25.
Phillips, T. (2015). “Don’t clone my indie game, bro”: Informal cultures of videogame regulation in the independent sector. Cultural Trends, 24(2), 143–153.
Pinch, T., & Trocco, F. (2002). Analog days: The invention and impact of the Moog synthesizer. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
Planells, J. A. (2017). Video games and the crowdfunding ideology: From the gamer-buyer to the prosumer-investor. Journal of Consumer Culture, 17(3), 620–638.
Rennstam, J. (2012). Object-control: A study of technologically dense knowledge work. Organization Studies, 33(8), 1071–1090.
Rosen, M. (1985). Breakfast at Spiro’s: Dramaturgy and dominance. Journal of Management, 11(2), 31–48.
Roth, P. (2017). Why write?: Collected nonfiction 1960–2013. New York: Library of America.
Roy, D. (1952). Quota restriction and goldbricking in a machine shop. American Journal of Sociology, 57(5), 427–442.
Ruffino, P. (2013). Narratives of independent production in video game culture. Loading, 7(11), 106–121.
Schoar, A. (2010). The divide between subsistence and transformational entrepreneurship. Innovation Policy and the Economy, 10(1), 57–81.
Simondon, G. (2017 [1958]). On the mode of existence of technical objects (C. Malaspina & J. Rogove, Trans.). Minneapolis: Univocal.
Spradley, J. P. (1988). You owe yourself a drunk: An ethnography of urban nomads. Lanham, New York, and London: The University Press of America.
Stigliani, I., & Ravasi, D. (2018). The shaping of form: Exploring designers’ use of aesthetic knowledge. Organization Studies, 39(5), 747–784.
Storz, C., Riboldazzi, F., & Moritz, J. (2014). Mobility and innovation: A cross-country comparison in the videogames industry. Research Policy, 44(1), 121–137.
Styhre, A., Remneland-Wikhamn, B., & Szczepanska, A. M. (2017). Consecrating video games as cultural artifacts: Intellectual legitimation as a source of industry renewal. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 34(1), 22–28.
Swedish Games Industry. (2019). Game development index 2019, Stockholm. Retrieved September 30, 2019, from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5a61edb7a803bb7a65252b2d/t/5d8a30a5c6a41508c50d8e6c/1569337529201/Spelutvecklarindex_digital_20190924.pdf
Thornham, H. (2011). Ethnographies of the videogame: Gender, narrative and praxis. Farnham: Ashgate.
Van Maanen, J. (2011). Ethnography as work: Some rules of engagement. Journal of Management Studies, 48, 218–234.
Vedula, S., & Kim, P. H. (2019). Gimme shelter or fade away: The impact of regional entrepreneurial ecosystem quality on venture survival. Industrial and Corporate Change, 28(4), 827–854.
Vesa, M., Hamari, J., & Harviainen, J. T. (2017). Computer games and organization studies. Organization Studies, 38(2), 273–284.
Video Game Industry Report. (2018).
Virilio, P., & Lotringer, S. (1997). Pure War. New York: Semiotext[e].
Watson, T. J. (2011). Ethnography, reality, and truth: The vital need for studies of how things work organizations and management. Journal of Management Studies, 48, 202–217.
Wedlin, L. (2006). Ranking Business Schools: Forming fields, identities and boundaries in internationla management education. Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward Elgar.
Zackariasson, P., & Wilson, T. L. (Eds.). (2012). The video game industry: Formation, present state, and future. New York: Routledge.
Zhao, E. Y., Ishihara, M., Jennings, P. D., & Lounsbury, M. (2018). Optimal distinctiveness in the console video game industry: An exemplar-based model of proto-category evolution. Organization Science, 29(4), 588–611.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Styhre, A. (2020). The Ethnographer’s Dilemma: To Understand a World That Is Not Your Own While Avoiding to Misrepresenting It. In: Indie Video Game Development Work. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45545-3_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45545-3_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-45544-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-45545-3
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)