Abstract
This chapter acquaints the readers with the concepts-approaches of governmentality, ethics of care, and multi-sited ethnography, which serve as framework of the book. While governmentality reveals how the governance of cross-border migration transmutes into complex interactions among actors, discourses, and practices strengthening the neoliberal paradigm of development, the ethics of care investigates the limits of the individualistic responsibility placed on migrant nurses as development agents. Juxtaposing these critical social theories create a unique discussion of highlighting spaces of invisibility, that is care as labor and the centrality of care in migratory contexts. Lastly, multi-sited ethnography allows for following and communicating all voices irrespective of their power. I propose this framework to emphasize knowledge, rationalities, and subjectivities constituted in the current governance of health care worker migration.
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- 1.
“PSI Symposium on the German-Philippines Bilateral Agreement for Health Workers,” Public Services International, 15 July 2015, accessed 24 January 2020, https://publicservices.international/resources/news/psi-symposium-on-the-german-philippines-bilateral-agreement-for-health-workers?id=6397&lang=en
- 2.
Megan Prescott and Mark Nichter, “Transnational nurse migration: Future directions for medical anthropological research,” Social Science and Medicine 107 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.02.026
- 3.
See Antoine Pécoud, “Introduction,” in Disciplining the Transnational Mobility of People, ed. Martin Geiger and Antoine Pécoud (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 2.
- 4.
Martin Geiger and Antoine Pécoud, “The new politics of international mobility: Migration management and its discontents,” in The new politics of international mobility: Migration management and its discontents, ed. Martin Geiger and Antoine Pécoud (Osnabrück: Institut für Migrationsforschung und Interkulturelle Studien (IMIS)-Universität Osnabrück, 2012), 11.
- 5.
Geiger and Pécoud, “The new politics of international mobility: Migration management and its discontents.”
- 6.
Julia Twigg, “Carework as a Form of Bodywork,” Ageing & Society 20, no. 4 (2000): 393, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X99007801
- 7.
Joan Tronto, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice (New York and London: New York University Press, 2013).
- 8.
Bernice Fisher and Joan C. Tronto, “Toward a Feminist Theory of Care,” in Circles of Care: Work and Identity in Women’s Lives, ed. Emily K. Abel and Margaret K. Nelson (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990); Marian Barnes, Care in Everyday Life: An Ethic of Care in Practice (Bristol: Policy Press, 2012); Tronto, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice
- 9.
Parvati Raghuram, “Global Care, Local Configurations – Challenges to Conceptualizations of Care,” Global Networks 12, no. 2 (2012): 160, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2012.00345.x
- 10.
Crehan and Von Oppen employ the concept “arena of struggle” in their analysis of development as exemplified by an Integrated Rural Development Programma in Zambia, jointly sponsored by the Zambian and West German governments. The authors argue that the development project should be understood as a social event between different groups with different interests and strategies, which have to be rationalized with regard to the larger historical context of the project on local, national, and international levels. Moreover, the authors emphasize the agency or capabilities of the supposed target group. Kate Crehan and Achim Von Oppen, “Understandings of ‘development’: an arena of struggle: The story of a development project in Zambia,” Sociologia Ruralis 28, no. 2–3 (1988), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.1988.tb01034.x
- 11.
Carol Bacchi, “Why Study Problematizations? Making Politics Visible,” Open Journal of Political Science 2, no. 1 (2012): 3, https://doi.org/10.4236/ojps.2012.21001
- 12.
Michel Foucault, “Governmentality,” in The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, ed. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
- 13.
Michel Foucault, Power Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977 ed. Colin Gordon (Pantheon Books, 1980), 93.
- 14.
Sara Kalm, “Liberalizing movements? The political rationality of global migration management,” in The Politics of International Migration Management, ed. Martin Geiger and Antoine Pécoud (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
- 15.
Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2012).
- 16.
Nikolas Rose, “Community, Citizenship, and the third Way,” American Behavioral Scientist 43, no. 9 (2000): 1399, https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640021955955
- 17.
Khushwant Singh, “Lessons from Germany,” in A Fair Deal on Talent – Fostering Just Migration Governance (Gütersloh: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2015).
- 18.
Birte Steller, “Moving Towards a Welcome-Orientated Migration Management in Germany?,” in Migration and Integration: Common Challenges and Responses from Europe and Asia, ed. Wilhelm Dr. Hofmeister et al. (Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer Stiftung and European Union, 2014).
- 19.
Global Forum on Migration and Development, “Triple Win Project,” (Geneva: Global Forum on Migration and Development, 20 July 2017 2014). https://gfmd.org/pfp/ppd/1712
- 20.
Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, Governing the Present: Administering Economic, Social and Personal Life (Cambridge and Malden: Polity Press, 2008), 32.
- 21.
Nikolas Rose, Powers of Freedom. Reframing Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
- 22.
Rose, Powers of Freedom. Reframing Political Thought, 174.
- 23.
See Julia Shaw, “Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care,” The British Journal of Social Wor 48, no. 4 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcy046
- 24.
Jason R. Weidner, “Nation Branding, Technologies of the Self, and the Political Subject of the Nation-State” (Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Global Governance: Political Authority in Transition, Montreal, 2011). 40
- 25.
See Tronto, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice x.
- 26.
Maria S. Floro, “The Crises of Environment and Social Reproduction: Understanding their Linkages,” (American University, Department of Economics, 2012).
- 27.
Joan Tronto, Moral Boundaries: Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (London: Routledge, 1993).
- 28.
Tronto, Moral Boundaries: Political Argument for an Ethic of Care; Tronto, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice; Joan Tronto, “There is an alternative: homines curans and the limits of neoliberalism,” International Journal of Care and Caring 1, no. 1 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1332/239788217X14866281687583
- 29.
Lizzie Ward, “Care for ourselves? Self-care and neoliberalism,” in Ethics of Care: Critical Advances in International Perspective, ed. Marian Barnes et al. (Bristol Policy Press, 2015).
- 30.
Parvati Raghuram, “Race and feminist care ethics: intersectionality as method,” Gender, Place & Culture 26, no. 5 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1567471
- 31.
Tronto, “There is an alternative: homines curans and the limits of neoliberalism.”
- 32.
Minh T. N. Nguyen, Roberta Zavoretti, and Joan Tronto, “Beyond the Global Care Chain: Boundaries, Institutions and Ethics of Care,” Ethics and Social Welfare 11, no. 3 (2017): 201, https://doi.org/10.1080/17496535.2017.1300308
- 33.
Shaw, “Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care.”
- 34.
Shaw, “Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care,” 191.
- 35.
Tronto, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice x.
- 36.
Barnes, Care in Everyday Life: An Ethic of Care in Practice.
- 37.
Teodora Manea, “Care for carers: care in the context of medical migration,” in Ethics of Care: Critical Advances in International Perspective, ed. Marian Barnes et al. (Bristol: Policy Press, 2015).
- 38.
George E. Marcus, “Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography,” Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), www.jstor.org/stable/2155931.
Mark-Anthony Falzon, “Introduction: Multi-Sited Ethnography: Theory, Praxis and Locality in Contemporary Research,” in Multi-Sited Ethnography: Theory, Praxis and Locality in Contemporary Research, ed. Mark-Anthony Falzon (Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2009).
- 39.
Adele Clarke, Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn (Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage, 2005).
- 40.
The bilateral agreement and Triple Win Project (sometimes ‘the Project’) are used interchangeably throughout the book.
- 41.
The recruitment still continues for new batches of Philippine-licensed nurses at the time of writing, as announced on the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration website. “Germany needs additional 550 Pinoy nurses under Triple Win Project “, Philippine Overseas Employment Administration, 2020, accessed 8 February 2020, http://poea.gov.ph/news/2020/NR_January%202020%20-%20Germany%20needs%20additional%20550%20Pinoy%20nurses%20under%20Triple%20Win%20Project.pdf
- 42.
“Triple Win migrant nurse” is the term I use to refer to those Philippine-trained nurses who have been placed with German employers through the bilateral agreement/Triple Win Project.
- 43.
“Sustainable recruitment of nurses (Triple Win),” Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH, accessed 22 August 2017, https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/41533.html
- 44.
Anne E. Pezalla, Jonathan Pettigrew, and Michelle Miller-Day, “Researching the researcher-as-instrument: an exercise in interviewer self-reflexivity,” Qualitative Research 12, no. 2 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1177/1487941111422107
- 45.
Pezalla, Pettigrew, and Miller-Day, “Researching the researcher-as-instrument: an exercise in interviewer self-reflexivity.”
- 46.
Douglas Massey et al., Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 190.
Johan Lindquist, “Labour Recruitment, Circuits of Capital and Gendered Mobility: Reconceptualizing the Indonesian Migration Industry,” Pacific Affairs 83, no. 1 (2010), https://doi.org/10.5509/2010831115
- 47.
Lindquist, “Labour Recruitment, Circuits of Capital and Gendered Mobility: Reconceptualizing the Indonesian Migration Industry,” 118.
- 48.
Geiger and Pécoud, “The new politics of international mobility: Migration management and its discontents.”
- 49.
Nicola Yeates and Jane Pillinger, International Health Worker Migration and Recruitment: Global Governance, Politics and Policy, Routledge Studies in Governance and Public Policy, (Florence: Routledge, 2019).
- 50.
Tania Murray Li, “Practices of assemblage and community forest management,” Economy and Society 36, no. 2 (2007): 264, https://doi.org/10.1080/03085140701254308.
- 51.
Clarke, Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn, 46–48.
- 52.
See Nina Glick Schiller, Linda Basch, and Cristina Szanton Blanc, “From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration,” Anthropological Quarterly 68, no. 1 (1995), https://doi.org/10.2307/3317464.
Sassen Saskia, “Global Cities and Diasporic Networks: Microsites in Global Civil Society,” in Global Civil Society, ed. Marlies Glasius, Mary Kaldor, and Helmut Anheier (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
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———. 2019. Race and Feminist Care Ethics: Intersectionality as Method. Gender, Place & Culture 26 (5): 613–637. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1567471.
Rose, Nikolas. 1999. Powers of Freedom. Reframing Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 2000. Community, Citizenship, and the Third Way. American Behavioral Scientist 43 (9): 1395–1411. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027640021955955.
Saskia, Sassen. 2002. Global Cities and Diasporic Networks: Microsites in Global Civil Society. In Global Civil Society, ed. Marlies Glasius, Mary Kaldor, and Helmut Anheier, 217–238. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schiller, Nina Glick, Linda Basch, and Cristina Szanton Blanc. 1995. From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration. Anthropological Quarterly 68 (1): 48–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/3317464.
Shaw, Julia. 2018. Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care. The British Journal of Social Wor 48 (4): 1147. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcy046.
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Steller, Birte. 2014. Moving Towards a Welcome-Orientated Migration Management in Germany? In Migration and Integration: Common Challenges and Responses from Europe and Asia, ed. Wilhelm Dr. Hofmeister, Patrick Rueppel, Yves Dr. Pascouau, and Andrea Frontini. Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer Stiftung and European Union.
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———. 2013. Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice. New York/London: New York University Press.
———. 2017. There Is an Alternative: Homines Curans and the Limits of Neoliberalism. International Journal of Care and Caring 1 (1): 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1332/239788217X14866281687583.
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Yeates, Nicola, and Jane Pillinger. 2019. International Health Worker Migration and Recruitment: Global Governance, Politics and Policy. Florence: Routledge, Routledge Studies in Governance and Public Policy.
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Mosuela, C.C. (2020). Introduction. In: Recuperating The Global Migration of Nurses. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44580-5_1
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