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Persian Law

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Legal Traditions in Asia

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 80))

Abstract

This chapter tells the rather complicated story of Persian law and how it evolved into the religious law of Zoroastrianism: state religion of Persia in the Sasanian period. Persian law was the customary law of Persian tribes in the beginning, which formed the basis of legal thinking for Persian kings in the Achaemenid Empire. Half a millennium after the death of Alexander, the Sasanians came to power, they inherited Achaemenid institutions which they developed further and also the ritual law of Zoroastrianism, an Iranian religion which they patronised. As a result, an amalgam of religious and secular law (customs and laws of the kings) came into being, which was strictly applied in courts of law in the majority of which Zoroastrian priests were judges. This cooperation of religious and secular institutions was backed by a theory according to which state and religion are twins. Things changed dramatically with the coming of Islam, which reduced the influence of Zoroastrianism, the followers of which are now a minority with no power but a strong will to adhere to their old laws. In addition to analysing these changes, the chapter dedicates separate units to basic institutions of public law, private law, criminal law and the laws of procedure in private and criminal cases.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Wiesehöfer (1996: 60), Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 98–99).

  2. 2.

    Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 100–103).

  3. 3.

    Fried (2004: 233).

  4. 4.

    Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 111–113).

  5. 5.

    Frye (1963: 100).

  6. 6.

    Schippmann 1980: 33–73.

  7. 7.

    Wiesehöfer (1996: 145).

  8. 8.

    Kār Nāmag-i Ardakhshēr, in Nyberg (1964: 1).

  9. 9.

    Ibn Isfandiyār (1320: 17).

  10. 10.

    Gnoli (1989: 157–162).

  11. 11.

    Gnoli (1989: 175–178).

  12. 12.

    Ibn Isfandiyār (1942: 25).

  13. 13.

    ŠKZ 28–29: Back (1978: 348–349).

  14. 14.

    ŠKZ 29.

  15. 15.

    Wiesehöfer (1996: 186), Daryaee (2009: 126).

  16. 16.

    Wiesehöfer (1996: 186–189).

  17. 17.

    ŠKZ: 30.

  18. 18.

    Back (1978: 498).

  19. 19.

    ŠKZ: 34.

  20. 20.

    Tafazzoli (2000: 23–27).

  21. 21.

    Altheim and Stiehl (1954: 240–241).

  22. 22.

    Braun (1915: VIII–IX).

  23. 23.

    ŠKZ: 30–32.

  24. 24.

    Wiesehöfer (1996: 198).

  25. 25.

    MHDA 27. 12.

  26. 26.

    Olmstead (1948: 119–134).

  27. 27.

    Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 117). See also the articles in Watts (2001) dedicated to the study of this question.

  28. 28.

    Herodotus I: 125.

  29. 29.

    Herodotus I: 133.

  30. 30.

    Herodotus III: 31; The Book of Esther 1: 11–13.

  31. 31.

    Herodotus V: 12.

  32. 32.

    Herodotus V: 25; VII: 194.

  33. 33.

    Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII: 81.

  34. 34.

    Herodotus I: 137; Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 120).

  35. 35.

    Herodotus III: 130; Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 120–121).

  36. 36.

    Herodotus I: 136.

  37. 37.

    The text was edited, translated into German and commented by Macuch (1981, 1993); translated into English by Perikhanian-Garsoian (1997).

  38. 38.

    Text editions: Tavadia (1930), Kotwal (1969).

  39. 39.

    Text editions and translation: Kotwal and Kreyenbroek (1992, 1995, 2003), Humbach and Elfenbein (1990).

  40. 40.

    Braun (1915), Hoffmann (1880).

  41. 41.

    Text editions: Safa–Isfehani (1980), Williams (1990).

  42. 42.

    Kent (1953: 151–152).

  43. 43.

    DB I. 23: (Kent 1953: 117–119): “by the favor of Auramazdā these countries showed respect toward my law.” DNa 21: (Kent 1953: 137): “my law—that held them firm ….”

  44. 44.

    PRDd 7.2; Williams (1990: Part I: 47).

  45. 45.

    Boyce (1975: 27). Schlerath (Enc. Ir. I. 694) and Gershevitch (1959: 6) interpret it merely as justice.

  46. 46.

    Herodotus I: 138.

  47. 47.

    Macuch (1993: 29) argues for a third century dating, Perikhanian and Garsoian (1997: 418) for the fifth century, while Jany (2006: 295–305) for the sixth century.

  48. 48.

    Tavadia (1930: 28–29).

  49. 49.

    Macuch (1993: 13).

  50. 50.

    Jany (2005: 297–303).

  51. 51.

    For more see Jany (2005).

  52. 52.

    MHD 4. 15–5. 3.

  53. 53.

    MHD 36. 2–5.

  54. 54.

    MHD 36. 9–16.

  55. 55.

    MHD 106. 7–9.

  56. 56.

    MHD 89. 15–17.

  57. 57.

    MHD 89. 17–90. 2.

  58. 58.

    MHDA 4. 6–8.

  59. 59.

    MHDA 7. 2–3.

  60. 60.

    MHDA 6. 1.

  61. 61.

    Perikhanian (1983: 648).

  62. 62.

    MHDA 6. 5–14.

  63. 63.

    MHDA 7. 3–8.

  64. 64.

    MHD 110. 4–8.

  65. 65.

    MHD 108. 6–8.

  66. 66.

    MHDA 2. 17–3. 1.

  67. 67.

    MHD 32. 12–14.

  68. 68.

    MHD 33. 3–6.

  69. 69.

    MHDA 7. 8–11.

  70. 70.

    MHDA 7. 8–11.

  71. 71.

    MHD 26. 3–5.

  72. 72.

    MHD 26. 3–5.

  73. 73.

    MHD 87. 7–10.

  74. 74.

    Carlsen (1984: 108–112).

  75. 75.

    MHD 33. 1–3.

  76. 76.

    Macuch (1981: 92–95).

  77. 77.

    MHD 73. 7.

  78. 78.

    MHD 33. 1–3.

  79. 79.

    MHDA 14. 1–4.

  80. 80.

    Yasna 12.9, Wīdēwdād 8.13, Wisperad 3.3, Yasht 24.17, Gah 4.8.

  81. 81.

    Herodotus III: 31; Dandamaev and Lukonin (1989: 119; 121).

  82. 82.

    Macuch (1991: 143).

  83. 83.

    RivDd 8d1–6: Williams (1990: Part I. 53, Part II. 12).

  84. 84.

    RivDd 8o1–2. Williams (1990: Part I. 61; Part II. 16–17).

  85. 85.

    Sachau (1914: 35).

  86. 86.

    Herodotuos, Ctesias, Strabon, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertios, Origenes, Agathias, Bardesanes.

  87. 87.

    Awesta; Dēnkard and the Riwāyat accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg.

  88. 88.

    Macuch (1991: 141).

  89. 89.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2: 108.

  90. 90.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 8: 7.

  91. 91.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 8: 8–9.

  92. 92.

    Rad is a priest and a spiritual leader going back to the Awestan times (Kreyenbroek 1994: 1–3).

  93. 93.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 8: 1.

  94. 94.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast. 8. 6.

  95. 95.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 8. 5–6 has the scholarly debate on the issue.

  96. 96.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 8: 5.

  97. 97.

    Snakes were stinging and tongues were ever eating (punishment of liars); killing his child and eating his brains (punishment of corrupt judge); suspended upside down from a tree and was ever masturbating (punishment of an adulterous man): Vahman (1986: 216).

  98. 98.

    Jany (2007: 362–373).

  99. 99.

    Hērbedestān, 12. 29.

  100. 100.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2. 40.

  101. 101.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2. 50.

  102. 102.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast. 2. 69. The sagdīd (“to see by a dog”) is part of the burial ceremony the aim of which is to become convinced about the definite setting in of death.

  103. 103.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast. 2. 80.

  104. 104.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 3. 26.

  105. 105.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast. 3. 28.

  106. 106.

    Hērbedestān, 17. 1.

  107. 107.

    Nērangestān, Fragard II, 23. 4. Ibn Isfandiyār: (1942: 22).

  108. 108.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2. 9.

  109. 109.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2. 63.

  110. 110.

    Shāyast-nē-shāyast 2. 76, 81, 85, 89, 105.

  111. 111.

    The Christian martyrs refer to this custom Braun (1915: 43).

  112. 112.

    Nyberg (1964: 10).

  113. 113.

    Wiessner (1967: 167–168).

  114. 114.

    Braun (1915: 198).

  115. 115.

    By king Yazdagerd I: Braun (1915: 179).

  116. 116.

    Macuch (1981: 202–203).

  117. 117.

    Macuch (1993: 727), Braun (1915: 203).

  118. 118.

    MHDA 34. 8–9.

  119. 119.

    MHDA 34. 6.

  120. 120.

    Braun (1915: 2–3).

  121. 121.

    Braun (1915: 208).

  122. 122.

    Braun (1915: 94, 101, 120, 122, 145).

  123. 123.

    MHDA 13. 10–12.

  124. 124.

    Braun (1915: 145–146), Hoffmann (1880: 37–38).

  125. 125.

    Braun (1915: 34, 55, 81, 95, 99, 104, 105, 148, 169), Hoffmann (1880: 16).

  126. 126.

    Braun (1915: 84, 153, 176).

  127. 127.

    Braun (1915: 185; 187; 268).

  128. 128.

    Ibn Isfandiyār: (1942: 26).

  129. 129.

    Braun (1915: 4, 56, 92, 183, 185). Hoffmann (1880: 33).

  130. 130.

    Braun (1915: 183), Ibn Isfandiyār (1942: 26).

  131. 131.

    Nyberg (1964: 10).

  132. 132.

    Braun (1915: 3, 272), Hoffmann (1880: 112).

  133. 133.

    MHDA 33. 3–7, 11–14.

  134. 134.

    MHDA 17. 4–7, 22. 1–7.

  135. 135.

    MHD 78. 2–11.

  136. 136.

    MHDA 26. 14–15; MHD 110. 13–15.

  137. 137.

    MHDA 26. 12–16.

  138. 138.

    MHDA 26. 17–27. 4.

  139. 139.

    MHDA 27. 4–5.

  140. 140.

    MHDA 27. 13–28.3.

  141. 141.

    Perikhanian-Garsoian (1997: 354).

  142. 142.

    MHD 93. 7–9.

  143. 143.

    Macuch (1993: 600).

  144. 144.

    MHDA 25. 16–17.

  145. 145.

    MHDA 13. 17–14. 1.

  146. 146.

    MHD 73. 13–74. 5.

  147. 147.

    MHD 10. 16–11. 2.

  148. 148.

    MHDA 25. 15–26. 11.

  149. 149.

    Macuch (1981: 160).

  150. 150.

    MHDA 25. 16–26. 12.

  151. 151.

    MHD 107. 9–12; 12–14.

  152. 152.

    MHDA 27. 7–9.

  153. 153.

    MHD 77. 15–78. 2.

  154. 154.

    MHD 90. 6–8.

  155. 155.

    MHD 74. 9–12.

  156. 156.

    MHD 93. 3–4.

  157. 157.

    MHD 3. 6–8; 110: 13–15.

  158. 158.

    MHDA 14. 5–6.

  159. 159.

    MHD 3. 1–3; 3–5; 5–6.

  160. 160.

    REA 25.

  161. 161.

    REA 42.

  162. 162.

    REA 25.

  163. 163.

    Sharafi (2014: 75–82; 165–192).

  164. 164.

    Irani (1968: 275–276; 283–284).

  165. 165.

    Irani (1968: 275).

  166. 166.

    http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35219331.

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    Janos Jany

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Jany, J. (2020). Persian Law. In: Legal Traditions in Asia. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 80. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43728-2_4

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