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Regional Hegemony and Pan-Americanism

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The Monroe Doctrine and United States National Security in the Early Twentieth Century

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Abstract

Chapter Two charts the development of two interpretations of the Monroe Doctrine that were each tied to antithetical core values: regional hegemony in the Western Hemisphere on the one hand and Pan-Americanism on the other. Americans began to scrutinise the doctrine’s meaning during the Roosevelt and Taft administrations because of perceived German and Japanese threats to national interests in Latin America. Perceptions of racial hierarchies, the importance of inter-American trade, and the strength of the United States Navy influenced the ways in which Americans utilised the doctrine as a medium through which to consider issues of national security. The enunciation of the Roosevelt Corollary and alternatives such as the Drago Doctrine signified that the doctrine’s tenets were deemed open to renegotiation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The transformation of the International Union of American Republics into the Pan American Union is told in John Barrett, The Pan American Union: Peace, Friendship, Commerce (Washington, DC: Pan American Union, 1911).

  2. 2.

    Charles Gardiner to John Barrett, September 4, 1901, Box 19, John Barrett Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  3. 3.

    Albert Shaw to John Barrett, November 30, 1901, Barrett Papers.

  4. 4.

    Historians tend to emphasise one motivation for imperial expansion over the others. On economic motivations see David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean 1898–1917 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 145–163; Marc-William Palen, “The Imperialism of Economic Nationalism, 1890–1913,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 1 (2015): 162–163. On political motivations see Dana Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean 1900–1921 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), 531–537; Alan McPherson, The Invaded: How Latin Americans and Their Allies Fought and Ended U.S. Occupations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 4–7. On cultural motivations see Emily Rosenberg, Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics and Culture of Dollar Diplomacy, 1900–1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 1–3; Lester Langley, The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire 1900–1934 (Lexington, KT: University Press of Kentucky, 1983), xvii–xx.

  5. 5.

    “Message of the President,” December 3, 1901, in United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States 1901 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), xxxvi–xxxvii; Theodore Roosevelt to Hermann von Sternburg, July 12, 1901, in Theodore Roosevelt, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, ed. Elting Morison (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951), 115–117.

  6. 6.

    “Venezuela and the Monroe Doctrine,” The Outlook, December 27, 1902, 971–973; Washington Post, December 25, 1902, 6. Reports reached the State Department that Central American opinion similarly objected on the grounds of a violation of the Monroe Doctrine: William Merry to John Hay, January 17, 1903, Reel 91, Dispatches from United States Ministers to Central America, 1824–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD.

  7. 7.

    Washington Post, January 24, 1903, 6; New York Tribune, April 3, 1903, 6; William Penfield, “The Anglo-German Intervention in Venezuela,” North American Review 177, no. 560 (1903): 86–96; Thomas Edgington, The Monroe Doctrine (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1904), 312.

  8. 8.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Grover Cleveland, December 26, 1902, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 398. He later referred to the resolution as a “striking enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine”: Theodore Roosevelt to Elihu Root, June 2, 1904, Box 163, Elihu Root Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  9. 9.

    “Germany, Great Britain, and Italy v. Venezuela et al.,” American Journal of International Law 2, no. 4 (1908): 902–911.

  10. 10.

    John Thompson, “Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of the Roosevelt Corollary,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 26, no. 4 (2015): 571–590; Matthias Maass, “Catalyst for the Roosevelt Corollary: Arbitrating the 1902–1903 Venezuela Crisis and Its Impact on the Development of the Roosevelt Corollary of the Monroe Doctrine,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 20, no. 3 (2009): 383–402.

  11. 11.

    Cyrus Veeser, A World Safe for Capitalism: Dollar Diplomacy and America’s Rise to Global Power (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2002), 1–7.

  12. 12.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Elihu Root, May 20, 1904 in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, 801–802; Theodore Roosevelt to Elihu Root, Jun. 7, 1904, Box 163, Root Papers. The best biographical study of Root remains Phillip Jessup, Elihu Root, 2 vols (New York, NY: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1938).

  13. 13.

    Elihu Root to Thomas Hubbard, November 17, 1904, Box 185, Root Papers; Elihu Root to Thomas Hubbard, December 1, 1904, Box 185, Root Papers.

  14. 14.

    “Message of the President,” December 6, 1904, in FRUS 1904, xli–xlii.

  15. 15.

    “Message from the President of the United States,” February 15, 1905, in FRUS 1905, 334–342.

  16. 16.

    Theodore Roosevelt to William Tiffany, March 14, 1905 in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, 1139. For details on the customs receivership see G. Pope Atkins and Larman Wilson, The Dominican Republic and the United States: From Imperialism to Transnationalism (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 37–43.

  17. 17.

    Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 2011), 229–239.

  18. 18.

    Anders Stephanson, “A Riff,” H-Diplo Roundtable Review 14, no. 10 (2012): 37–38; Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire of Right (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1995), 107–108.

  19. 19.

    Marco Mariano, “Identity, Alterity, and the ‘Growing Plant’ of Monroeism in U.S. Foreign Policy Ideology,” in U.S. Foreign Policy and the Other, ed. Michael Cullinane and David Ryan (New York, NY: Berghahn Books, 2015), 65.

  20. 20.

    U.S. Congress. Senate. The Genuine Monroe Doctrine, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record, January 8, 1906, 793–797. See also On the Charge that President Roosevelt is Attempting to Subvert the Monroe Doctrine (New York, NY: Parker Constitution Club of New York City, 1904); “The Monroe Doctrine and the Santo Domingo Treaty,” North Carolina Journal of Law 2, no. 4 (1905): 147–149.

  21. 21.

    U.S. Congress. Senate. Moroccan Conference and Relations with Santo Domingo, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record, January 24, 1906, 1470–1475; U.S. Congress. Senate. Moroccan Conference and Relations with Santo Domingo, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record, January 31, 1906, 1802–1803; New York Times, December 24, 1904, 6; Washington Post, December 12, 1905, 6; “The New Monroe Doctrine,” The Outlook, February 11, 1905, 366–368.

  22. 22.

    Albert Bushnell Hart, “The Monroe Doctrine in its Territorial Extent and Application,” Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute 32, no. 3 (1906): 797.

  23. 23.

    New York Times, April 23, 1911, SM6. On the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone see Richard Collin, Theodore Roosevelt’s Caribbean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine and the Latin American Context (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 163–338; Michael Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 3rd ed., 2012), 63–83.

  24. 24.

    Whitelaw Reid, “The Monroe Doctrine, the Polk Doctrine and the Doctrine of Anarchism,” Yale Law Journal 13, no. 1 (1903): 16–41.

  25. 25.

    Whitelaw Reid to Frederick Gillett, November 7, 1903 and Whitelaw Reid to Theodore Roosevelt, November 9, 1903, in Whitelaw Reid, “Rise to World Power: Selected Letters of Whitelaw Reid 1895–1912”, ed. David Contosta and Jessica Hawthorne, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 76, no. 2 (1986): 85–86.

  26. 26.

    John Major, Prized Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal 1903–1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 10, 36, 158; David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977), 608–610; Rolt Hammond and C. J. Lewin, The Panama Canal (London: Frederick Muller, 1966), 33.

  27. 27.

    Walter Scholes and Marie Scholes, The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1970), 12–19; Munro, Dollar Diplomacy, 160–162; Healy, Drive to Hegemony, 145–146.

  28. 28.

    “Mr. Huntington Wilson’s Address at Baltimore,” May 4, 1911, Box 14, Philander Chase Knox Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC; “Message of the President,” December 3, 1912, in FRUS 1912, x.

  29. 29.

    Healy, Drive to Hegemony, 124–125.

  30. 30.

    Michael Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 48–62; Lars Schoultz, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Fredrick Pike, The United States and Latin America: Myths and Stereotypes of Civilization and Nature (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1992).

  31. 31.

    Brenda Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 1–3.

  32. 32.

    Benjamin Coates, Legalist Empire: International Law and American Foreign Relations in the Early Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 21–24.

  33. 33.

    “Trip to the West Indies and Panama,” Henry Lewis Stimson Diaries, Reel 1 Volume 2, 42–46, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

  34. 34.

    “Message of the President,” December 3, 1912, in FRUS 1912, xii. Unlike most Presidents before him, Taft was not particularly fond of the Monroe Doctrine and his devotion towards it was, in the words of an early biographer, “slowly acquired, like a taste for olives”; Henry Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, vol. 2 (New York, NY: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939), 694–695.

  35. 35.

    Munro, Dollar Diplomacy, 161–162.

  36. 36.

    “Notes for Argument in Favor of Honduras and Nicaragua Loan Conventions,” Box 9, Knox Papers.

  37. 37.

    Untitled note addressed to the Senate, January 1911, Box 28, Knox Papers.

  38. 38.

    Philander Chase Knox, “The Monroe Doctrine and Some Incidental Obligations in the Zone of the Caribbean,” New York, January 19, 1912, Box 43, Knox Papers.

  39. 39.

    “Address of Hon. Philander C. Knox,” April 15, 1909, Box 28, Barrett Papers.

  40. 40.

    See various newspaper transcriptions in Box 14, Knox Papers.

  41. 41.

    William Howard Taft to Philander Chase Knox, February 10, 1912, Box 16, Knox Papers.

  42. 42.

    Philander Chase Knox, Speeches Incident to the Visit of Philander Chase Knox Secretary of State of the United States to the Countries of the Caribbean, February 23 to April 17 1912 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Press, 1913), 15–16.

  43. 43.

    United States press clippings can be found in Central American Trip, 1912, Scrapbook no. 6, Box 38, Knox Papers. Latin American press clippings can be found in Central American Trip, 1912, Scrapbook no. 1, Box 33, Knox Papers.

  44. 44.

    Michael Gobat, Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua Under U.S. Imperial Rule (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 82.

  45. 45.

    Knox, Speeches, 57.

  46. 46.

    Juan Pablo Scarfi, “In the Name of the Americas: The Pan-American Redefinition of the Monroe Doctrine and the Emerging Language of American International Law in the Western Hemisphere, 1898–1933,” Diplomatic History 40, no. 2 (2016): 191–192.

  47. 47.

    James Rippy, “Literary Yankeephobia in Hispanic America (Concluded),” Journal of International Relations 12, no. 4 (1922): 524–538.

  48. 48.

    Luis Drago to Martin Garcia Mérou, December 29, 1902, in FRUS 1903, 1–5. See also Amos Hershey, “The Calvo and Drago Doctrines,” American Journal of International Law 1, no. 1 (1907): 26–45; Arthur Whitaker, The Western Hemisphere Idea: Its Rise and Decline (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1954), 86–107; David Shenin, Argentina and the United States: An Alliance Contained (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 33.

  49. 49.

    Healy, Drive to Hegemony, 135–139.

  50. 50.

    Elihu Root, Latin America and the United States: Addresses by Elihu Root, ed. Robert Bacon and James Brown Scott (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1917), 10.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., 58–59.

  52. 52.

    Washington Post, August 2, 4.

  53. 53.

    “Travel Experiences in Brazil,” 1917, Box 13, Samuel Guy Inman Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  54. 54.

    “Meeting of the American Commission to the Second Hague Conference,” April 20, 1907, Box 21, Joseph Hodges Choate Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  55. 55.

    Whilst discussing the Hauge conference with Theodore Roosevelt, Whitelaw Reid predicted that the Drago Doctrine would not be accepted as it was “too much of a self-denying ordinance to be entirely agreeable to any [delegation]”: Whitelaw Reid to Theodore Roosevelt, January 15, 1907, in “Letters of Whitelaw Reid,” 121.

  56. 56.

    “Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debts,” October 18, 1907, The Avalon Project, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hague072.asp.

  57. 57.

    Schoultz, Beneath the United States, 192.

  58. 58.

    Elihu Root to Benjamin Tillman, December 13, 1905, Box 186, Root Papers.

  59. 59.

    Ricardo Salvatore, Disciplinary Conquest: U.S. Scholars in South America, 1900–1945 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016), 25–31; Ricardo Salvatore, “The Enterprise of Knowledge: Representational Machines of Informal Empire,” in Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations, ed. Gilbert Joseph, Catherine Legrand and Ricardo Salvatore (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 80.

  60. 60.

    Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, February 1908, 283–300.

  61. 61.

    Salvatore, Disciplinary Conquest, 4, 254–256.

  62. 62.

    Joseph Smith, Unequal Giants: Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Brazil, 1889–1930 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), 52.

  63. 63.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Frederic Coudert, July 3, 1901 in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 105–107.

  64. 64.

    “Message of the President,” December 5, 1905, in FRUS 1905, xxxiii–xxxv.

  65. 65.

    “Message of the President,” December 7, 1909, in FRUS, xv.

  66. 66.

    Knox, Incidental Obligations; Joseph Choate to Edwin Morgan (27 January 1911), Box 15, Choate Papers.

  67. 67.

    Nicolai Grevstad to Philander Chase Knox, May 1, 1912 in Department of State, Division of Information, Series A, The ABC Alliance, Box 40, Knox Papers.

  68. 68.

    Elihu Root to Andrew Carnegie, December 13, 1907, Box 188, Root Papers; Elihu Root to Hart Lyman, December 27, 1907, Box 188, Root Papers.

  69. 69.

    Elihu Root to Albert Shaw, December 14, 1908, Box 189, Elihu Root Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  70. 70.

    Elihu Root to Lyman Abbott, December 24, 1908, Box 189, Root Papers.

  71. 71.

    Elihu Root to John Hay, January 7, 1905, Box 185, Root Papers.

  72. 72.

    Elihu Root to Albert Shaw, January 3, 1908, Box 188, Root Papers.

  73. 73.

    Joseph Smith, Brazil and the United States: Convergence and Divergence (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 60.

  74. 74.

    Elihu Root to Henry Watterson, May 16, 1906, Box 186, Root Papers.

  75. 75.

    Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1887–1920 (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 68.

  76. 76.

    Report of the Delegates of the United States to the Pan-American Scientific Conference Held at Santiago, Chile December 25, 1908, to January 5, 1909 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909), 44.

  77. 77.

    Alejandro Álvarez, “Latin America and International Law,” American Journal of International Law 3, no. 2 (1909): 269–353; Alejandro Álvarez, “American International Law,” trans. Leo Rowe, Proceedings of the American Society of International Law at Its Annual Meeting 3 (1909): 206–220. On American International Law see Juan Pablo Scarfi, The Hidden History of International Law in the Americas: Empire and Legal Networks (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

  78. 78.

    Britta Crandall, Hemispheric Giants: The Misunderstood History of U.S.-Brazilian Relations (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 29.

  79. 79.

    Jornal do Commercio, January 20, 1908, 1.

  80. 80.

    Alejandro Álvarez, “The Monroe Doctrine at the Fourth Pan-American Conference,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 37, no. 3 (1911): 24–30; Samuel Guy Inman, Problems in Pan Americanism (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1926), 207–209; Gordon Connell-Smith, The Inter-American System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), 52.

  81. 81.

    William Lindsay Scruggs, “The Monroe Doctrine and its Future,” 43–45, Reel 2, William Lindsay Scruggs Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC. This unpublished essay served as the basis for a subsequent article, although the content in question was removed: William Lindsay Scruggs, “The Monroe Doctrine: Its Origin and Import,” North American Review 176, no. 555 (1903): 185–199.

  82. 82.

    Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1909), 291–314.

  83. 83.

    James Slayden, “The Relations of the United States to Other American Governments: The Monroe Doctrine and its Limitations,” Proceedings of the Third American Peace Conference Held in Baltimore, Maryland May 3 to 6, 1911 (Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press, 1911), 157–173.

  84. 84.

    Thomas Bailey, “Dewey and the Germans at Manila Bay,” American Historical Review 45, no. 1 (1939): 59–81; Collin, Roosevelt’s Caribbean, 66–74.

  85. 85.

    Andrew White to John Hay, May 13, 1898 and June 18, 1898, Reel 85, Despatches from United States Ministers to the German States and Germany, 1799–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD.

  86. 86.

    Nancy Mitchell, The Danger of Dreams: German and American Imperialism in Latin America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 218–220.

  87. 87.

    Criticism of the Monroe Doctrine was rampant in the German press, but it was Otto von Bismarck’s historic comments that Americans tended to refer to. He described the doctrine as “international impertinence,” “that monstrosity in International Law” and “a species of arrogance peculiarly American and inexcusable”: Otto von Bismarck to Georg Münster, June 1, 1884 in German Diplomatic Documents 1871–1914, vol. 1, ed. Edgar Dugdale (New York, NY: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1928), 176; Herbert Kraus, “What European Countries Think of the Monroe Doctrine,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 54, no. 1 (1914): 109; Wolf von Schierbrand, “Conversations with the Four German Chancellors,” The Century Magazine, May 1902, 155.

  88. 88.

    Ragnhild Fiebig-von Hase, “The United States and Germany in the World Arena, 1900–1917,” in Confrontation and Cooperation: Germany and the United States in the Era of World War I 1900–1924, ed. Hans Jürgen Schröder (Providence: Berg Publishers, 1993), 37; Manfred Jonas, The United States and Germany: A Diplomatic History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), 51–55.

  89. 89.

    Mitchell, Danger of Dreams, 2–8.

  90. 90.

    For Anglo-American relations during this period see Iestyn Adams, Brothers Across the Ocean: British Foreign Policy and the Origins of the Anglo-American ‘Special Relationship’ 1900–1905 (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2005); Bradford Perkins, The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895–1914 (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1968); Alexander Campbell, Great Britain and the United States 1895–1903 (London: Longmans, 1960).

  91. 91.

    Henry Cabot Lodge to Henry White, February 3, 1903, Box 17, Henry White Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  92. 92.

    Alfred Thayer Mahan to Leopold Maxse, December 22, 1902, in Alfred Thayer Mahan, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, ed. Robert Seager and Doris Maguire (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 49–50; John Hay to Henry White, March 15, 1903, John Hay-Henry White Correspondence, Digital Maryland http://collections.digitalmaryland.org/cdm/.

  93. 93.

    Sebastian Conrad, “Rethinking German Colonialism in a Global Age,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41, no. 4 (2013): 548; Mitchell, Danger of Dreams, 108–109; Thomas Schoonover, Germany in Central America: Competitive Imperialism, 1821–1929 (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 112–115; Borus Fausto, “Brazil: The Social and Political Structure of the First Republic, 1889-1930” in The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, ed. Leslie Bethell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 783–784; Frederick Luebke, “A Prelude to Conflict: The German Ethnic Group in Brazilian Society, 1890–1917,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 6, no. 1 (1983): 1–9; Ian Forbes, “German Informal Imperialism in South America before 1914,” The Economic History Review 31, no. 3 (1978): 388; James Rippy, “German Investments in Latin America,” Journal of Business of the University of Chicago 21, no. 2 (1948): 65–66.

  94. 94.

    “Department of State Circular,” March 31, 1900, Reel 12 (Argentina), Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State 1801–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD.

  95. 95.

    Scruggs, “The Monroe Doctrine,” 38–41.

  96. 96.

    George Cole to Elihu Root, April 26, 1906, Reel 25, Despatches from United States Consuls in Buenos Aires 1811–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD.

  97. 97.

    Emory White to Theodore Roosevelt, December 16, 1902, Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?libID=o39864. Similar expressions of concern include Alvey Adee to Charles Page Bryan, September 6, 1901, Reel 26 (Brazil), Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State 1801–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD; “German Expansion,” The Outlook, May 18, 1901, 150–151; John Simmons, “The Monroe Doctrine: Its Status,” Michigan Law Review 5, no. 4 (1907): 248; Hugh Johnson, “The Lamb Rampant,” Everybody’s Magazine, Mar. 1908, 291–301; Paul Reinsch, World Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century (New York, NY: Macmillan Company, 1900), 281–286; Albert Hale, The South Americans (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1907), 321–323.

  98. 98.

    Report of the Merchant Marine Commission, Together with the Testimony Taken at the Hearings, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), iv–v; Leo Rowe, “The Danger of National Isolation,” North American Review 185, no. 617 (1907): 425; George Cole to Robert Bacon, December 7, 1905, Reel 25, Despatches from Buenos Aires; Bulletin of the Pan American Union, February, 1908, 272–273; Charles Pepper, “Steamship Lines to South America,” September 10, 1909, Box 7, Knox Papers; William Finley to Philander Chase Knox, July 8, 1909, Box 8, Knox Papers; Elmer Youngman to Philander Chase Knox, September 14, 1909, Box 27, Knox Papers.

  99. 99.

    John Barrett to Theodore Roosevelt, December 20, 1904, Box 21, Barrett Papers. Emphasis in original.

  100. 100.

    “Memorandum of Remarks Submitted to the Merchant Marine Commission,” June 24, 1904, Box 21, Barrett Papers; Report of the Merchant Marine Commission: Together with the Testimony Taken at the Hearings, vol. 2, Hearings on the Great Lakes and Pacific Coast (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), 677–683.

  101. 101.

    John Barrett to George Finley, June 1, 1906, Box 25, Barrett Papers.

  102. 102.

    “The United States as a World Power” Feburary 26, 1910, Box 29, Barrett Papers.

  103. 103.

    John Barrett, “A Ready Aid in Foreign Trade,” System, March 1908, 91–104; John Barrett to William Howard Taft, September 14, 1909, Box 29, Barrett Papers.

  104. 104.

    Proceedings of the Pan American Commercial Conference February 13–17, 1911 (Washington, DC: Pan American Union, 1911).

  105. 105.

    John Barrett, The Pan-American Union: Peace, Friendship, Commerce (Washington, DC: Pan American Union, 1911), 10.

  106. 106.

    Russell Kazal, Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 2.

  107. 107.

    Charles Page Bryan to John Hay, June 25, 1900, Reel 67, Despatches From Brazil; Charles Page Bryan to John Hay, April 2, 1901 and May 17, 1901, Reel 68, Despatches from Brazil.

  108. 108.

    José Paranhos, Baron of Rio Branco to John Bassett Moore, November 22, 1901, Box 119, John Bassett Moore Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  109. 109.

    Thomas Dawson to John Hay, November 1, 1901, Reel 69, Despatches from Brazil.

  110. 110.

    George Crichfield, American Supremacy: The Rise and Progress of the Latin American Republics and their Relations to the United States Under the Monroe Doctrine, vol. 2 (New York, NY: Brentano’s, 1908), 635.

  111. 111.

    Charles Dole, “The Right and Wrong of the Monroe Doctrine,” The Atlantic, April 1905, 569.

  112. 112.

    Walter Wellman, “Shall the Monroe Doctrine be Modified?” North American Review 173, no. 541 (1901): 832–844.

  113. 113.

    Stephan Bonsal, “Greater Germany in South America,” North American Review 176, no. 554 (1903): 58–67.

  114. 114.

    Mitchell, Danger of Dreams, 57–63, 128; Richard Challener, Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy 1898–1914 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 18–23; Dirk Bönker, Militarism in a Global Age: Naval Ambitions in Germany and the United States before World War I (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012), 39–41.

  115. 115.

    Alfred Thayer Mahan to Charles Stewart, March 19, 1909, in Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, 290–292; Robert Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1977), 490–517.

  116. 116.

    The Navy, July 1908, 16–20. See also Theodore Roosevelt to John Davis Long, September 30, 1897, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 1, 695; Theodore Roosevelt to Joseph Cannon, December 27, 1904, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, 1080–1081; Theodore Roosevelt to James Watson, August 18, 1906, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 5, 372–378.

  117. 117.

    Mark Howe, George von Lengerke Meyer: His Life and Public Services (New York, NY: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1920), 451.

  118. 118.

    U.S. Congress. House. Naval Appropriation Bill, 58th Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record, Feburary 20, 1904, 2149.

  119. 119.

    Ibid., 2154.

  120. 120.

    “Parker vs Roosevelt: An Open Letter to the Independent Voter,” September 1904, in Carl Schurz, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, vol. 6, ed. Frederick Bancroft (New York, NY: G. P. Putman’s Sons, 1913), 370–371.

  121. 121.

    “Hon. John D. Long on Increase of Navy,” Advocate of Peace, April 1905, 71.

  122. 122.

    Eric Rutkow, The Longest Line on the Map: The United States, the Pan-American Highway, and the Quest to Link the Americas (New York, NY: Scribner, 2019), 86–87.

  123. 123.

    U.S. Congress. House. Naval Appropriation Bill, 60th Cong., 1st Sess., Congressional Record, April 15, 1908, 4777–4778.

  124. 124.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Theodore Burton, February 23, 1904 in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, 735–737.

  125. 125.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Richmond Hobson, April 16, 1908 in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 6, 1008–1009.

  126. 126.

    Francis Loomis, “The Position of the United States on the American Continent – Some Phases of the Monroe Doctrine,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 22 (1903): 3; Edward Stanwood, “The Moral Aspects of the Monroe Doctrine,” The Outlook, February 8, 1902, 371; The Navy, August 1908, 13.

  127. 127.

    Armin Rappaport, The Navy League of the United States (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1962), 3–14.

  128. 128.

    John Gibbons, “Navy Leagues,” North American Review, May 1903, 761.

  129. 129.

    William Howard Taft, “Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1909, The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/inaugural-address-46.

  130. 130.

    Challener, Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy, 15–29.

  131. 131.

    Alfred Thayer Mahan to Bouverie Clark, July 23, 1909, in Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, 307–308; Alfred Thayer Mahan to Henry Cabot Lodge, January 8, 1912, in Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, 443–444.

  132. 132.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, March 27, 1901, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 31–32; Theodore Roosevelt to George von Lengerke Meyer, April 12, 1901, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 52; Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, June 19, 1901, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 97–98; Theodore Roosevelt to Cecil Spring-Rice, July 3, 1901, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 3, 107–109; Theodore Roosevelt to Cecil Spring-Rice, November 1, 1905, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 5, 61–64.

  133. 133.

    William Holt, Treaties Defeated by the Senate (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1933), 105–110; Henry White to John Hay, May 15, 1901 and October 23, 1901, John Hay-Henry White Correspondence, Digital Maryland, https://collections.digitalmaryland.org/digital/collection/hawp.

  134. 134.

    Washington Post, January 3, 1901, 6; Horace Fisher to John Davis Long, January 29, 1902 in John Davis Long, Papers of John Davis Long 1897–1904, ed. Gardner Allen (Boston, MA: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1939), 421–423.

  135. 135.

    John Hay to Theodore Roosevelt, April 15, 1903, Reel 5, John Hay Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC.

  136. 136.

    It is worth noting that Queen Alexandra was vehemently anti-German and had never forgiven Germany for the events of the Prussian-Danish war of 1864.

  137. 137.

    Ronn Pineo, Ecuador and the United States: Useful Strangers (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2007), 85–87.

  138. 138.

    Elihu Root to William Fox, June 18, 1908 in Department of State, Division of Information, Series A, Sale of the Galapagos Islands, Knox Papers.

  139. 139.

    Francis Huntington-Wilson, “Galapagos Islands,” Box 28, Knox Papers; Francis Huntington-Wilson to David Hill, July 16, 1910 in Department of State, Division of Information, Series A, Sale of the Galapagos Islands, Box 39, Knox Papers.

  140. 140.

    Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897–1911 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), 72–73; William Nester, Power Across the Pacific: A Diplomatic History of American Relations with Japan (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1996).

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    David Patterson, “Japanese-American Relations: The 1906 California Crisis, the Gentlemen’s Agreement, and the World Cruise,” in A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Serge Ricard (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 391–401; Michael Cullinane, “The ‘Gentleman’s’ Agreement: Exclusion by Class,” Immigrants & Minorities 32, no. 2 (2014): 139–161.

  142. 142.

    Alfred Thayer Mahan to Theodore Roosevelt, December 2, 1911, in Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, 435–436.

  143. 143.

    “Memorandum,” March 1908, Reel 83, Viscount James Bryce Papers, Weston Library, University of Oxford.

  144. 144.

    Elihu Root to Luke Wright, March 24,1906, Reel 108 (Japan), Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State 1801–1906, Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives II, College Park, MD.

  145. 145.

    Howe, Meyer, 370–371.

  146. 146.

    Theodore Roosevelt to Philander Chase Knox, February 8, 1909, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 4, 1510–1514.

  147. 147.

    U.S. Congress. Senate. Land at Magdalena Bay, 62nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record, May 1, 1912, 5661.

  148. 148.

    Ibid., 5662–5666.

  149. 149.

    “The Annual Japanese War Scare,” Advocate of Peace, May 1912, 106.

  150. 150.

    U.S. Congress. Senate. Foreign Occupations on American Soil, 62nd Cong., 2nd Sess., Congressional Record, August 2, 1912, 10045–10047.

  151. 151.

    Dexter Perkins, A History of the Monroe Doctrine (London: Longmans, [1955] 1960), 271–274.

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Bryne, A. (2020). Regional Hegemony and Pan-Americanism. In: The Monroe Doctrine and United States National Security in the Early Twentieth Century. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43431-1_3

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