Abstract
Climate change makes the Arctic ocean accessible for a range of human activities, such as shipping or hydrocarbon extraction, which can severely damage the fragile natural environment. The emergence of a ‘new ocean’ raises the question whether existing international legal norms are sufficient to adequately govern the Arctic ocean in light of this changing situation. Looking at the work of existing institutions, initiatives by Arctic States and applicable legal norms, the authors investigate the suitability of the current international legal framework for the governance of the Arctic ocean in general and the protection of the marine environment in particular. In the absence of a regional seas agreement for the Arctic ocean, particular attention will be given to the work of the Arctic Council and to potential future developments of the international legal framework governing in particular the high seas part of the central Arctic ocean.
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- 1.
402 United Nations Treaty Series 71, opened for signature on 1 December 1959 in Washington, D.C., entered into force on 23 June 1961.
- 2.
Molenaar (2012), p. 558.
- 3.
- 4.
Canada, Act to Prevent Pollution of areas of the Arctic Waters Adjacent to the Mainland and Islands of the Canadian Arctic, June 1970, International Legal Materials 9 (1970), pp. 543–552.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
Id., p. 185.
- 8.
1833 United Nations Treaty Series 3, opened for signature on 10 December 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica, entered into force on 16 November 1994.
- 9.
Id., p. 186.
- 10.
Overland et al. (2018).
- 11.
NOAA (2019).
- 12.
Gray (2018).
- 13.
NOAA (2019).
- 14.
Welch (2017).
- 15.
See also Lei et al. (2015).
- 16.
Art. 234 UNCLOS.
- 17.
IMO Resolution A.982(24), Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs).
- 18.
- 19.
Polar Code (2016). MEPC 68/21/Add.1, Annex 10, http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/polar/Documents/POLAR%20CODE%20TEXT%20AS%20ADOPTED.pdf.
- 20.
Arctic Council (2015).
- 21.
Churchill and Lowe (1999), p. 335.
- 22.
For a list of dangers see Polar Code, Introduction, Part 3.
- 23.
See also Zojer (2018), p. 213.
- 24.
- 25.
Koivurova (2014), p. 102.
- 26.
- 27.
- 28.
Bellefontaine and Johansson (2018), pp. 257 et seq.
- 29.
Kirchner (2019), p. 86.
- 30.
This is an issue that is not reflected in the Polar Code, which appears to treat bergy waters as open waters, see Polar Code, Part I-A, Chapter 12, para. 12.3.2.
- 31.
- 32.
Art. 234, UNCLOS.
- 33.
CLCS (2009).
- 34.
- 35.
DOALOS (2018).
- 36.
Oude Elferink (2001), p. 156.
- 37.
- 38.
Cf. Kirchner (2018).
- 39.
Polar Code (2016).
- 40.
See Kirchner and Alkanli (2011).
- 41.
See Kirk and Miller (2018).
- 42.
Proelss and Müller (2008), p. 684.
- 43.
Art. 122, UNCLOS.
- 44.
- 45.
Permanent Court of Arbitration, The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of Philippines v. The People’s Republic of China), Case 2013-19, Award of 12 July 2016, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086.
- 46.
Whomersley (2016), p. 241; referring to the maps on pp. 7 and 9 in Permanent Court of Arbitration, The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of Philippines v. The People’s Republic of China), Case 2013-19, Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility of 29 October 2015, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1506, which highlight the distance of 200 nm from the coastal States’ coastlines.
- 47.
- 48.
Convention Respecting Measures for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals and Sea Otters in the North Pacific Ocean, signed July 7, 1911, the Treaty text is available at the American Journal of International Law, Supplement Official documents 1911, Vol. 5 (4), p. 267.
- 49.
Interim Convention between the United States of America, Canada, Japan and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on conservation of North Pacific fur seals, signed 9 February 1957, entered into force 14 October 1957, 314 UNTS 106; Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears signed 15 November 1973, entered into force 26 May 1976, 2898 UNTS 243.
- 50.
The Inuvialuit-Inupiat Polar Bear Management Agreement is not an international treaty but an agreement between indigenous peoples in two countries (United States and Canada).
- 51.
Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean, 3 October 2018, text available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/GA/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52018PC0454.
- 52.
Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, signed 4 August 1995, entered into force 11 December 2001, 2167 UNTS 3.
- 53.
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (1995).
- 54.
Arctic Council (1996).
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
Molenaar (2012), p. 579.
- 57.
Id., p. 580.
- 58.
Koivurova (2010), p. 148.
- 59.
Id., pp. 149–150.
- 60.
Cf. Koivurova (2010).
- 61.
Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean (CAOFA) (2018).
- 62.
Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (Arctic SAR), 12 May 2011, entered into force 19 January 2013, 50 ILM 1113 (2011).
- 63.
Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation, 11 May 2017, entered into force 23 May 2018, https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/1916.
- 64.
Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic, 15 May 2013, entered into force 25 March 2016, https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/529.
- 65.
Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA) 2009 Report, https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/54.
- 66.
AMSA (2009), p. 6.
- 67.
Scott and VanderZwaag (2017), p. 736.
- 68.
CAMLR Convention (1980).
- 69.
Ilulissat Declaration (2008), https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/2008-Ilulissat-Declaration.pdf.
- 70.
Schatz et al. (2018).
- 71.
Ibid.
- 72.
Ibid.
- 73.
Ibid.
- 74.
De Lucia et al. (2018), p. 265.
- 75.
Cf. Louis-Jacques (2012).
- 76.
Roach (2018).
- 77.
- 78.
IISD (2018).
- 79.
- 80.
On the establishment of potential Arctic PSSAs see McCreath and Brigham (2018), pp. 313 et seq.
- 81.
IMO Resolution A.982(24), Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs).
- 82.
Id.
- 83.
Arctic Council (2009).
- 84.
See e.g. Arctic Council (2013).
- 85.
- 86.
Kirchner and Kleemola-Juntunen (2018), p. 34.
- 87.
Byers (2013), p. 189.
- 88.
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (2004).
- 89.
At the time of writing (early 2019), Canada, Norway, Sweden and Russia have acceded to the BWM Convention. Finland has accepted the Convention while neither the United States nor Iceland are parties to it. Denmark has acceded to the BWM Convention but at the same time declared that the BWM Convention would not apply to Greenland (the simultaneous declaration that the BWM Convention would not apply to Faroyar was withdrawn in 2015), IMO (2019), pp. 517 et seq. The example of the BWM Convention highlights that shared challenges do no not necessarily lead to joint approaches among the Arctic States.
- 90.
De Lucia et al. (2018), p. 265.
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Koivurova, T., Kirchner, S., Kleemola-Juntunen, P. (2020). The Arctic Ocean: Are We Ready to Govern a New Ocean?. In: Ribeiro, M., Loureiro Bastos, F., Henriksen, T. (eds) Global Challenges and the Law of the Sea. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42671-2_4
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