Abstract
In water contaminated with oil, oil and water are not soluble or miscible. Oil-water mixtures present can be divided into immiscible mixtures and emulsions.
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Appendices
Appendix 9.A: Introduction to Various Oil-Water Separation Techniques Commercially Used for Oil Spill Cleanup
Contamination of ground water and ocean water is of concern. Various industrial accidents on the ground and offshore occur periodically which lead to water contamination. Table 9.A.1 presents a list of notable offshore oil spills (Brown and Bhushan 2016). The Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 was the largest offshore oil spill in history with some 206 million gallons of oil being released in the Gulf. In addition, the emergence of fracking in the US, where water-based fluids (containing sand and chemicals) are injected under high pressure to fracture rocks for the release of previously inaccessible oil and gas, has led to a large increase in domestic oil production, Fig. 9.A.1 (Brown and Bhushan 2016). However, the process has also led to an increase in the amount of oil-contaminated wastewater. It is estimated that, between 2005 and 2014, some 248 billion US gallons of water were used for shale gas and oil extraction in the United States (Kondash and Vengosh 2015). In addition to this large amount of wastewater that must be processed before release, there is the potential for accidental contamination of ground and surface water.
(adapted from Brown and Bhushan 2016)
Schematic of the fracking process. High pressure fluid (typically water, sand, and chemicals) is pumped underground, creating fissures and releasing previously inaccessible pockets of oil and gas, which are then removed along with the fluid. Leaks of contaminated fracking fluid into groundwater are possible from the fracture zone, the well, and flowback water storage containers. Inset: US crude oil production. Increase in production from 2010 is due to emergence of fracking, primarily occurring onshore in the lower 48 states
Oil contamination occurs as part of routine operation in various industrial machinery. Examples include industrial lubricating oil effluents in electric transformers, air brakes of commercial vehicle systems, industrial compressors, and various components in mining and paper manufacturing industries. Oil contaminants need to be captured in some applications to maintain efficient operation of machinery and avoid environmental impact. Separating of oil from industrial wastewater is of interest to allow water re-use.
Finally, removal of oil and other organic contaminants from water for human consumption is critical. This is particularly important in the parts of the world with high contamination levels and limited water resources.
Oil spills cleanup and separation of oil from water for industrial re-use and human consumption remains an important environmental challenge. Various methods are commercially used for oil spill cleanup (Dave and Ghaly 2011; Fingas 2011; Brown and Bhushan 2016).
9.A.1 Dispersants
Dispersants are chemical compounds that reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water to promote the breakup of oil globs into smaller droplets. Dispersants are toxic and harmful to marine life, as well as expensive, and they decrease biodegradability of the oil (Nwaizuzu et al. 2015). Dispersants are sometimes are used to prevent oil from getting to the shore, however, oil that has been treated with dispersants that does get to shore will sink deep into the ground where it cannot easily be degraded or captured. Lastly, dispersants can cause oil to sink where it is both harder to capture, and slower to degrade due to the lower temperature.
9.A.2 Controlled Burning
Controlled burning is another method of disposing of oil. It is quick and effective; however, burning release a large amount of greenhouse gases as well as toxic compounds. Burning must be done far away from population centers to prevent health effects of the toxic gases released. To burn effectively, there must be at least 3 mm of oil on the surface of water.
9.A.3 Sorbents
Sorbents or sponges are materials that will soak up oil on contact, Fig. 9.A.2. Absorbent materials include zeolites, organoclays, or natural fibers such as straw, cellulose, wool, or human hair. The absorbent materials often are non-selective, absorbing both oil and water, lowering their efficiency (Zhu et al. 2011; Bayat et al. 2015). They also can sink when saturated with oil, making it difficult to recover. After, sucking up oil, sorbents would either have to be thrown away or cleaned, making them incompatible with continuous processes. This method is very slow and is not suitable for cleanup of large surface area.
(adapted from Bhushan 2018)
Photograph of the sorbent sucking up oil spill
9.A.4 Skimmers
Skimmers are floating devices that “skim” oil off the surface. Figure 9.A.3 shows three different forms of oleophilic surface skimmers and their oil collection wells. Their efficiency is dependent upon favorable conditions including calm waters and slow oil speeds. They are prone to clogging with trash in the water and cannot be used in rough water. In the case of absorbent belt skimmers, the collected oil needs to be physically removed from the surface during oil removal. If the oil is not removed, surfaces could become fouled, making recycling of the surfaces impossible.
(adapted from Fingas 2011)
Schematics of various configurations used in boom deployment
9.A.5 Booms
Booms are long floating objects that can be dragged across the water to corral oil and prevent it from spreading. Figure 9.A.4 shows various configurations used in boom deployment.
(adapted from Fingas 2011)
Schematics of the principles of three different forms of oleophilic surface skimmers
To sum up, various methods used today, use toxic chemicals which are environmentally unfriendly or slow and tedious requiring significant time and expense.
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Bhushan, B. (2020). Bioinspired Oil-Water Separation and Water Purification Approaches Using Superliquiphobic/philic Porous Surfaces and External Stimuli. In: Bioinspired Water Harvesting, Purification, and Oil-Water Separation. Springer Series in Materials Science, vol 299. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42132-8_9
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