Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Five Diseases That Are Devastating the African American Population

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Blacks in Medicine

  • 424 Accesses

Abstract

It is important to establish an understanding of the depth and severity of diseases that mainly affect African Americans. None could be more illustrative of this than sickle cell anemia, hypertension, heart failure, drug addiction (opioid use disorder), and HIV/AIDS. These disorders epitomize the struggles that blacks have gone through to survive some of the very worst medical situations in the history of mankind. They also represent the most desperate aspects of healthcare disparities and the fact that within them are found both frustration with our past efforts to eliminate those disparities as well as the hope of eliminating them through recent developments in research and precision drug development. In a sense, this is a “tale of two cities” in that blacks have endured the worst of times with respect to these diseases but can now expect the best of times due to the emergence of promising new medical approaches. These five disease states are analyzed from the perspective of their historical, epidemiological, demographic, pathophysiological, geographical, clinical, therapeutic, and healthcare aspects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Williams RA, editor. Textbook of black-related diseases. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Herrick JB. Peculiar elongated and sickle-shaped red blood corpuscles in a case of severe anemia. Arch Intern Med. 1910;6(5):517–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Pauling L, Itano HA, Singer SJ, Wells IC. Sickle cell anemia, a molecular disease. Science. 1949;110(2865):543–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Al-Salem A. Genetics and pathophysiology of sickle cell anemia. In: Medical and surgical complications of sickle cell anemia. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bunn HF. Pathogenesis and treatment of sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(11):762–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Ballas SK, Gupta K, Adams-Graves P. Sickle cell pain: a critical reappraisal. Blood. 2012;120(18):3647–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Kato GJ, Piel FB, Reid CD, Gaston MH, Ohene-Frempong K, Krishnamurti L, et al. Sickle cell disease. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4:18010. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2018.10. Review

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Rees DC, Williams TN, Gladwin MT. Sickle cell disease. Lancet. 2010;376(9757):2018–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Piel FB, Steinberg MH, Rees DC. Sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(16):1561–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Hassell KL. Population estimates of sickle cell disease in the U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2010;38(4 Suppl):S512–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Piel FB, Patil AP, Howes RE, Nyangiri OA, Gething PW, Dewi M, et al. Global epidemiology of sickle haemoglobin in neonates: a contemporary geostatistical model-based map and population estimates. Lancet. 2013;381(9861):142–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Sickle cell trait fact sheet. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/traits.html. Accessed 12 Sep 2019.

  13. Lorey FW, Arnopp J, Cunningham GC. Distribution of hemoglobinopathy variants by ethnicity in a multiethnic state. Genet Epidemiol. 1996;13(5):501–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. McCurdy PR. 32-DFP and 51-Cr for measurement of red cell life span in abnormal hemoglobin syndromes. Blood. 1969;33(2):214–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Tantawy AG. The scope of clinical morbidity in sickle cell trait. Egypt J Med Hum Genet. 2014;15(4):319–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Harris KM, Haas TS, Eichner RE, Maron BJ. Sickle cell trait associated with sudden death in competitive athletes. Am J Cardiol. 2012;110(8):1184–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Goldsmith JC, Bonham VL, Joiner CH, Kato GJ, Noonan AS, Steinberg MH. Framing the research agenda for sickle cell trait: building on the current understanding of clinical events and their potential implications. Am J Hematol. 2012;87(3):340–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Sullivan LW. The risks of sickle cell trait: caution and common sense. N Engl J Med. 1987;31(13):830–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Pauling LC. Reflections on the new biology. UCLA Law Rev. 1968;15:268–72.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Strouse JJ, Lobner K, Lanzkron S, Haywood C Jr. NIH and national foundation expenditures for sickle cell disease are associated with PUBMED publications and FDA approvals. Blood. 2013;122(21):739. http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/122/21/1739

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Wong TE, Brandow AM, Lim W, Lortenberg R. Update on the use of hydroxyurea therapy in sickle cell disease. Blood. 2014;124(26):3850–7. quiz 4004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Gaston MH, Verter JI, Woods G, Pegelow C, Kelleher J, Presbury G, et al. Prophylaxis with oral penicillin in children with sickle cell anemia—a randomized trial. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(25):1593–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Figueiredo M. Endari reduces pain crises, hospitalizations in sickle cell patients, phase 3 trial shows. Sickle Cell Anemia News. 26 Jul 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Niihara Y, Miller ST, Kanter J, Lanzkron S, Smith WR, Hsu LL, et al. A phase 3 trial of l-glutamine in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(3):226–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Ataga KI, Kutlar A, Kanter J, Liles D, Cancado R, Friedrisch J, et al. Crizanlizumab for the prevention of pain crises in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(5):429–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Global Blood Therapeutics. GBT announces U.S. Food and Drug Administration acceptance of new drug application and priority review for voxelotor for the treatment of sickle cell disease. https://ir.gbt.com/news-releases/news-release-details/gbt-announces-us-food-and-drug-administration-acceptance-new. Accessed 9 Sep 2019.

  27. Vichinsky E, Hoppe CC, Ataga KI, Ware RE, Nduba V, El-Beshlawy A, HOPE Trial Investigators, et al. A phase 3 randomized trial of voxelotor in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(6):509–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Adams RJ, McKie VC, Hsu L, Files B, Vichinsky E, Pegelow C, et al. Prevention of a first stroke by transfusion in children with sickle cell anemia and abnormal results on transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(1):5–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Hsieh MM, Fitzhugh CD, Weitzel RP, Link ME, Coles WA, Zhao X, et al. Nonmyeloablative HLA-matched sibling allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for severe sickle cell phenotype. JAMA. 2014;312(1):48–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hoban MD, Orkin SH, Bauer DE. Genetic treatment of a molecular disorder: gene therapy approaches to sickle cell disease. Blood. 2016;127(7):839–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Zhang F, Wen Y, Guo X. CRISPR/Cas9 for genome editing: progress, implications, and challenges. Hum Mol Genet. 2014;23(R1):R40–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Gold J. Sickle cell patients, families and doctors face a “fight for everything.” Kaiser Health News. 27 Dec 2017. https://khn.org/news/sickle-cell-patients-families-and-doctors-face-a-fight-for-everything/. Accessed 11 Sep 2019.

  33. Lapook J. Could gene therapy cure sickle cell anemia? 60 Minutes. 29 Dec 2019. https://https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-on-the-trial-aiming-to-cure-sickle-cell-60-minutes-2019-12-29/. Accessed 4 Jan 2020.

  34. Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, Casey DE Jr, Collins KJ, Dennison Himmelfarb C, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Hypertension. 2018;71(6):1269–324. Erratum in Hypertension. 2018;71(6):e136–9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Aronow WS. Initiation of antihypertensive therapy. Presented at American Heart Association (AHA) Scientific Session 2017; 11–15 Nov 2017; Anaheim, CA. https://www.abstractsonline.com/pp8/#!/4412/presentation/55060.

  36. Howard G, Lackland DT, Kleindorfer DO, Kissela BM, Moy CS, Judd SE, et al. Racial differences in the impact of elevated systolic blood pressure on stroke risk. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(1):46–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Fleming M. Steven Nissen, MD: risk calculation is a risky business. MD Magazine. 31 Nov 2018. https://www.mdmag.com/conference-coverage/aha-2018/steven-nissen-md-risk-calculation-is-a-risky-business. Accessed 12 Sep 2018.

  38. Fryar CD, Ostchega Y, Hales CM, Zhang G, Kruszon-Moran D. Hypertension prevalence and control among adults: United States, 2015–2016. NCHS data brief, no 289. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Gibbs CR, Beevers DG, Lip GY. The management of hypertensive disease in black patients. QJM. 1999;92(4):187–92. Review

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, Carnethon M, Dai S, De Simone G, American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics: 2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;121(7):e46–e215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wright JT Jr, Agadoa LY, Appel L, Cushman WC, Taylor AL, Obegdegbe GG, et al. New recommendations for treating hypertension in black patients: evidence and/or consensus? Hypertension. 2010;56(5):801–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Moulton SA. Hypertension in African Americans and its related chronic diseases. J Cult Divers. 2009;16(4):165–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Mueller M, Purnell TS, Mensah GA, Cooper LA. Reducing racial and ethnic disparities in hypertension prevention and control: what will it take to translate research into practice and policy? Am J Hypertens. 2015;28(6):699–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Bronfenbrenner U. Ecological models of human development. In: International encyclopedia of education, vol. Vol 3. 2nd ed. Oxford UK: Elsevier; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  45. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Healthy People 2020. https://www.healthypeople.gov/. Accessed 12 Sep 2019.

  46. Ho PM, Bryson CL, Rumsfeld JS. Medication adherence: its importance in cardiovascular outcomes. Circulation. 2009;119(23):3028–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ferdinand KC, Yadav K, Nasser SA, Clayton-Jeter HD, Lewin J, Cryer DR, Senatore FF. Disparities in hypertension and cardiovascular disease in blacks: the critical role of medication adherence. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2017;19(10):1015–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Mills KT, Obst KM, Shen W, Molina S, Zhang HJ, He H, et al. Comparative effectiveness of implementation strategies for blood pressure control in hypertensive patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2018;168(2):110–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Victor RG, Lynch K, Li N, Blyler C, Muhammad E, Handler J, et al. A cluster-randomized trial of blood pressure reduction in black barbershops. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(14):1291–301.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: avoidable deaths from heart disease, stroke, and hypertensive disease – United States, 2001–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(35):721–7.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Go AS, Mozaffarian D, Roger VL, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB, American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee, et al. American Heart Association Heart disease and stroke statistics—2013 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;127(1):e6–e245. Erratum in: Circulation. 2013;127(1). https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e31828124ad. Circulation. 2013;127(23):e841

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB, Poole JE, Packer DL, Boineau R, Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT) Investigators, et al. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(3):225–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Bibbins-Domingo K, Pletcher MJ, Lin F, Vittinghoff E, Gardin JM, Arynchyn A, et al. Racial differences in incident heart failure among young adults. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(12):1179–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Bahrami H, Kronmal R, Bluemke DA, Olson J, Shea S, Liu K, et al. Differences in the incidence of congestive heart failure by ethnicity: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(19):2138–45.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Loehr LR, Rosamond WD, Chang PP, Folsom AR, Chambless LE. Heart failure incidence and survival (from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study). Am J Cardiol. 2008;101(7):1016–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Duprez DA, Jacobs DR Jr, Lutsey PL, Herrington D, Prime D, Ouyang P, et al. Race/ethnic and sex differences in large and small artery elasticity—results of the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Ethn Dis. 2009;19(1):243–50.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Kalinowski L, Dobrucki IT, Malinski T. Race-specific differences in endothelial function: predisposition of African Americans to vascular diseases. Circulation. 2004;109(21):2511–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mulukutla SR, Venkitachalam L, Bambs C, Kip KE, Aiyer A, Marroquin OC, Reis SE. Black race is associated with digital artery endothelial dysfunction: results from the Heart SCORE study. Eur Heart J. 2010;31(22):2808–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Jacobson DR, Pastore RD, Yaghoubian R, Kane I, Gallo G, Buck FS, Buxbaum JN. Variant-sequence transthyretin (isoleucine 122) in late-onset cardiac amyloidosis in black Americans. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(7):466–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Buxbaum J, Alexander A, Koziol J, Tagoe C, Fox E, Kitzman D. Significance of the amyloidogenic transthyretin val 122 lle allele in African Americans in the Atherosclerotic Risk in Communities (ARIC) and Cardiovascular Health (CHS) studies. Am Heart J. 2010;159(5):864–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Ruberg FL, Berk JL. Transthyretin(TTR) cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation. 2012;126(10):1286–300.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Shah KB, Mankad AK, Castano A, Akinboboye OO, Duncan PB, Fergus IV, Maurer MS. Transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis in black Americans. Circ Heart Fail. 2016;9(6):e00258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Ruberg FL, Maurer M, Judge D, Zeldenrust S, Skinner M, Kim AY, et al. Prospective evaluation of the morbidity and mortality of wild-type and V122I mutant transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy: the Transthyretin Amyloidosis Cardiac Study (TRACS). Am Heart J. 2012;64(2):222–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Maurer MS, Grogan DR, Judge DP. Tafamidis in transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy: effects on transthyretin stabilization and clinical outcomes. Circ Heart Fail. 2015;8(3):9629–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Maurer MS, Schwartz JH, Gundapaneni B, Elliott PM, Merlini G, Waddington-Cruz M, et al. Tafamidis treatment for patients with transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(11):1007–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Digitalis Investigation Group. The effect of digoxin on mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(8):525–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Franciosa JA, Ferdinand KC, Yancy CW, Consensus Statement on Heart Failure in African Americans Writing Group. Treatment of heart failure in African Americans: a consensus statement. Congest Heart Fail. 2010;16(1):27–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Kaplinsky E. Sacubatril/valsartan in heart failure: latest evidence and place in therapy. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2016;7(6):278–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Brown N, Ray W, Snowden M, Griffin M. Black Americans have an increased rate of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;60(1):8–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Shekelle PG, Rich MW, Morton SC, Atkinson CS, Tu W, Maglione M, et al. Efficacy of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers in the management of left ventricular systolic dysfunction according to race, gender, and diabetic status: a meta-analysis of major clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(9):1529–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Exner DV, Dries DL, Domanski MJ, Cohn JN. Lesser response to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in black as compared to white patients with left ventricular dysfunction. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(18):1351–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Gibbs CR, Lip GY, Beevers DG. Angioedema due to ACE inhibitors: increased risk in patients of African origin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;48(6):861–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Deswal A, Petersen NJ, Souchek J, Ashton CM, Wray NP. Impact of race on healthcare utilization and outcomes in veterans with congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43(5):778–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Dries DL, Exner DV, Gersh BJ, Cooper HA, Carson PE, Domanski MJ. Racial differences in the outcome of left ventricular dysfunction. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(8):609–16. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 1999;341(4):298

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Taylor AL, Ziesche S, Yancy C, Carson P, D’Agostino R, Ferdinand K, Taylor M, African-American Heart Failure Trial Investigators, et al. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(20):2049–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG, American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines; American College of Chest Physicians; International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation; Heart Rhythm Society, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. Circulation. 2005;112(12):e154–235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Heart Failure Society of America. HFSA 2006 comprehensive heart failure practice guideline. J Card Fail. 2006;12(a):e1–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Fonarow GC, Yancy CW, Hernandez AF, Peterson ED, Spertus JA, Heidenreich PA. Potential impact of optimal implementation of evidence-based heart failure therapies on mortality. Am Heart J. 2011;161(6):1024–30.e3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wakeman SE, Barnett ML. Primary care and the opioid crisis - buprenorphine myths and realities. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(1):1–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Saloner B, Stoller KB, Alexander GC. Moving addiction care to the mainstream—improving the quality of buprenorphine treatment. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(1):4–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Scruggs AE. Sharp rise in African American opioid overdoses has Cleveland officials worried. The Washington Post. 9 Jun 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Katz J, Goodnough A. The opioid crisis is getting worse, particularly for black Americans. The New York Times. 22 Dec 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Volkow ND, Collins FS. The role of science in addressing the opioid crisis. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(4):391–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. National Institutes of Health. NIH HEAL Initiative. https://www.nih.gov/research-training/medical-research-initiatives/heal-initiative. Accessed 13 Sep 2019.

  85. Wood E. Strategies for reducing opioid-overdose deaths - lessons from Canada. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(17):1565–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016. Vol. 28. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html. Published Nov 2017. Accessed 13 Sep 2019.

  87. Epstein JE. Altered conditions: disease, medicine, and storytelling. London/New York: Routledge; 1995. p. 18.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Nance RM, Delaney JAC, Simoni JM, Wilson IB, Myer KH, Whitney BM, et al. HIV viral suppression trends over time among HIV-infected patients receiving care in the United States, 1997 to 2015. A cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(6):376–84.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, Smith DK, Rose CE, Segolodi TM, TDF2 Study Group. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(5):423–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. AIDS info. FDA approves first drug for reducing the risk of sexually acquired HIV infection. 16 Jul 2012. Washington, DC. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm312210.htm. Accessed 13 Sep 2019.

  91. Grohskopf LA, Chillag KL, Gvetadze R, Liu AY, Thompson M, Mayer KH, et al. Randomized trial of clinical safety of daily oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate among HIV uninfected men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;64(1):79–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015. Vol. 27. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hiv-surveillance-report-2015-vol-27.pdf. Accessed Published Nov 2016. Accessed 13 Sep 2019.

  93. Bush S, Magnuson D, Rawlings MK, Hawkins T, McCallister S, Mera Giler R. Racial characteristics of FTC/TDF for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) users in the US (abstract 2651). ASM Microbe 2016/ ICAAC 2016. Boston, MA. 16–20 Jun 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Kwakwa HA, Bessias S, Sturgis D, Walton G, Wahome R, Gaye O, Jackson M. Engaging United States black communities in HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis: analysis of a PrEP engagement cascade. J Natl Med Assoc. 2018;110(5):480–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Albeck-Ripka L. How Australia could almost eradicate HIV transmissions. The New York Times. 10 Jul 2019.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Encino, CA, USA

    Richard Allen Williams

Authors
  1. Richard Allen Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Williams, R.A. (2020). Five Diseases That Are Devastating the African American Population. In: Blacks in Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41960-8_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41960-8_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-41959-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-41960-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation