Abstract
Benign essential blepharospasm (henceforth “blepharospasm”) and hemifacial spasm are conditions which are linked in the final manifestation of facial spasm and are similar in regard to basic approaches to treatment. Both these diseases are movement disorders but have completely different pathophysiology. For this reason, this chapter is divided into two sections, the first on blepharospasm and the second on hemifacial spasm.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Talkow J. Klonische krampfe der angelinder: neurotomie der supraorbitalnerven. Klin Montasbl Augenheilkd. 1870;8:129–45.
Meige H. Les convulsion de la face une form clinique de convulsion faciale, bilateral et mediane. Rev Neurol (Paris). 1907;10:437–43.
Jankovic JJ. Etiology and differential diagnosis of blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia. Adv Neurol. 1988;49:103–16.
Reynolds DH, Smith JL, Walsh TJ. Differential section of the facial nerve for blepharospasm. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1967;71:656–64.
Callahan A. Surgical correction of intractable blepharospasm: technical improvements. Am J Ophthalmol. 1965;60:788–91.
Weingarten CZ, Putterman AM. Management of patients with essential blepharospasm. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon. 1976;55:8–24.
Henderson JW. Essential blepharospasm. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1956;54:453–520.
Goldstein JE, Cogan DG. Apraxia of lid opening. Arch Ophthalmol. 1965;73:155–9.
Lepore FE, Devoisin RC. ‘Apraxia’ of eyelid opening: an involuntary levator inhibition. Neurology. 1985;35:423–7.
Jordan DR, Anderson RL, Digre KB. Apraxia of lid opening in blepharospasm. Ophthalmic Surg. 1990;21:331–4.
Georgescu D, Vagefi MR, McMullan TF, McCann JD, Anderson RL. Upper eyelid myectomy in blepharospasm with associated apraxia of lid opening. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(3):541–7.
Anderson RL, Patel BC, Holds JB, Jordan DR. Blepharospasm: past, present, and future. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:305–17.
Peckham EL, Lopez G, Shamim EA, et al. Clinical features of patients with blepharospasm: a report of 240 patients. Eur J Neurol. 2011;18(3):382–6.
Jankovic JJ, Patel SC. Blepharospasm associated with brainstem lesions. Neurology. 1983;33:1237–40.
Aramideh M, Bour LJ, Koelman JH, et al. Abnormal eye movements in blepharospasm and involuntary levator palpebrae inhibition. Brain. 1994;117:1457–74.
Hotson JR, Boman DR. Memory-contingent saccades and the substantia nigra postulate for essential blepharospasm. Brain. 1991;114:295–307.
Jankovic JJ. Clinical features, differential diagnosis and pathogenesis of blepharospasm and cranial-cervical dystonia. In: Bosniak SL, Smith BC, editors. Advances in ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery, vol. 4. New York: Pergamon Press; 1985. p. 67–82.
Creel DJ, Holds JB, Anderson RL. Auditory brain-stem responses in blepharospasm. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1993;86:138–40.
Eftekhari K, Choe CH, Vagefi MR, et al. Oral methylphenidate for the treatment of refractory facial dystonias. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;31(3):e65–6.
Price KM, Ramey NA, Richard MJ, et al. Can methylphenidate objectively provide relief in patients with uncontrolled blepharospasm? A pilot study using surface electromyography. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2010;26(5):353–6.
Vijayakumar D, Wijemanne S, Jankovic J. Treatment of blepharospasm with apraclonidine. J Neurol Sci. 2017;372:57–9.
Alderson K, Holds JB, Anderson RL. Botulinum-induced alterations of nerve-muscle interactions in the human orbicularis oculi following treatment for blepharospasm. Neurology. 1991;41:1800–5.
Scott AB. Botulinum toxin injection of eye muscles to correct strabismus. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1981;79:734–70.
Kennedy RA, Stubbs HA. Botulinum-A toxin injection as a treatment for blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985;103:347–50.
Kollewe K, Mohammadi B, Kohler S, et al. Blepharospasm: long-term treatment with either Botox(R), Xeomin(R) or Dysport(R). J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2015;122(3):427–31.
Chundury RV, Couch SM, Holds JB. Comparison of preferences between onabotulinumtoxinA (Botox) and incobotulinumtoxinA (Xeomin) in the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;29(3):205–7.
Albrecht P, Jansen A, Lee JI, et al. High prevalence of neutralizing antibodies after long-term botulinum neurotoxin therapy. Neurology. 2019;92(1):e48–54.
Adler CH, Factor SA, Brin M, Sethi KD. Secondary nonresponsiveness to botulinum toxin type A in patients with oromandibular dystonia. Mov Disord. 2002;17(1):158–61.
Koshy JC, Sharabi SE, Feldman EM, et al. Effect of dietary zinc and phytase supplementation on botulinum toxin treatments. J Drugs Dermatol. 2012;11(4):507–12.
Cohen JL. Scientific skepticism and new discoveries: an analysis of a report of zinc/phytase supplementation and the efficacy of botulinum toxins in treating cosmetic facial rhytides, hemifacial spasm and benign essential blepharospasm. J Cosmet Laser Ther. 2014;16(5):258–62.
Esposito M, Fasano A, Crisci C, et al. The combined treatment with orbital and pretarsal botulinum toxin injections in the management of poorly responsive blepharospasm. Neurol Sci. 2014;35(3):397–400.
Huang L, Costin BR, Sakolsatayadorn N, Perry JD. Safety of onabotulinum toxin a injection to the central upper eyelid and eyebrow regions. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;30(5):377–80.
Dutton JJ, White JJ, Richard MJ. Myobloc for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm in patients refractory to botox. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22(3):173–7.
Gillum WN, Anderson RL. Blepharospasm surgery: anatomic approach. Arch Ophthalmol. 1981;99:1056–62.
Jordan DR, Patrinely JR, Anderson RL, et al. Essential blepharospasm and related dystonias. Surv Ophthalmol. 1989;34:123–32.
McCord CD, Coles WH, Shore JW, et al. Treatment of essential blepharospasm. I. Comparison of facial nerve avulsion and eyebrow-eyelid muscle stripping procedure. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102:266–8.
Frueh BR, Musch DC, Bersani TA. Effects of eyelid protractor excision for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:681–6.
Patel BCK, Anderson RL. Blepharospasm and related facial movement disorders. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1995;5:86–99.
Kent TL, Petris CK, Holds JB. Effect of upper eyelid myectomy on subsequent chemodenervation in the management of benign essential blepharospasm. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;31(3):222–6.
Yen MT, Anderson RL, Small RG. Orbicularis oculi muscle graft augmentation after protractor myectomy in blepharospasm. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;19:287–96.
Adler CH, Zimmerman RA, Savino PJ, et al. Hemifacial spasm: evaluation by magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance tomographic angiography. Ann Neurol. 1992;32(4):502–6.
Digre K, Corbett JJ. Hemifacial spasm: differential diagnosis, mechanism, and treatment. Adv Neurol. 1988;49:151–76.
Girard N, Poncet M, Caces F, et al. Three-dimensional MRI of hemifacial spasm with surgical correlation. Neuroradiology. 1997;39(1):46–51.
Jannetta PJ, Abbasy M, Maroon JC, Ramos FM, Albin MS. Etiology and definitive microsurgical treatment of hemifacial spasm. Operative techniques and results in 47 patients. J Neurosurg. 1977;47(3):321–8.
Nielsen VK. Pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm: I. Ephaptic transmission and ectopic excitation. Neurology. 1984;34(4):418–26.
Nielsen VK. Pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm: II. Lateral spread of the supraorbital nerve reflex. Neurology. 1984;34(4):427–31.
Nielsen VK, Jannetta PJ. Pathophysiology of hemifacial spasm: III. Effects of facial nerve decompression. Neurology. 1984;34(7):891–7.
Tan EK, Jankovic J. Hemifacial spasm and hypertension: how strong is the association? Mov Disord. 2000;15(2):363–5.
Yaltho TC, Jankovic J. The many faces of hemifacial spasm: differential diagnosis of unilateral facial spasms. Mov Disord. 2011;26(9):1582–92.
Wang A, Jankovic J. Hemifacial spasm: clinical findings and treatment. Muscle Nerve. 1998;21(12):1740–7.
Ehni G, Woltman HW. Hemifacial spasm: review of one hundred and six cases. Arch Neurol Psychiatr. 1945;53(3):205–11.
Tan EK, Jankovic J. Bilateral hemifacial spasm: a report of five cases and a literature review. Mov Disord. 1999;14(2):345–9.
Defazio G, Abbruzzese G, Girlanda P, et al. Botulinum toxin A treatment for primary hemifacial spasm: a 10-year multicenter study. Arch Neurol. 2002;59(3):418–20.
Czyz CN, Burns JA, Petrie TP, et al. Long-term botulinum toxin treatment of benign essential blepharospasm, hemifacial spasm, and Meige syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2013;156(1):173–7. e2
Schellini SA, Matai O, Igami TZ, Padovani CR, Padovani CP. Essential blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm: characteristic of the patient, botulinum toxin A treatment and literature review. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2006;69(1):23–6.
Calace P, Cortese G, Piscopo R, et al. Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum neurotoxin type A: long-term results. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2003;13(4):331–6.
Vartanian AJ, Dayan SH. Complications of botulinum toxin a use in facial rejuvenation. Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am. 2005;13(1):1–10.
Eckman PB, Kramer RA, Altrocchi PH. Hemifacial spasm. Arch Neurol. 1971;25(1):81–7.
Savino PJ, Sergott RC, Bosley TM, Schatz NJ. Hemifacial spasm treated with botulinum A toxin injection. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985;103(9):1305–6.
Garland PE, Patrinely JR, Anderson RL. Hemifacial spasm. Results of unilateral myectomy. Ophthalmology. 1987;94(3):288–94.
Tan N, Chan L, Tan E. Hemifacial spasm and involuntary facial movements. QJM. 2002;95(8):493–500.
Miller LE, Miller VM. Safety and effectiveness of microvascular decompression for treatment of hemifacial spasm: a systematic review. Br J Neurosurg. 2012;26(4):438–44.
Sindou M, Fobé JL, Ciriano D, Fischer C. Hearing prognosis and intraoperative guidance of brainstem auditory evoked potential in microvascular decompression. Laryngoscope. 1992;102(6):678–82.
Payner TD, Tew JM. Recurrence of hemifacial spasm after microvascular decompression. Neurosurgery. 1996;38(4):686–90; discussion 690–1
Han I, Chang JH, Chang JW, Huh R, Chung SS. Unusual causes and presentations of hemifacial spasm. Neurosurgery. 2009;65(1):130–7; discussion 137
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rafailov, L., Anderson, R.L., Leyngold, I.M. (2021). Essential Blepharospasm and Hemifacial Spasm. In: Servat, J.J., Black, E.H., Nesi, F.A., Gladstone, G.J., Calvano, C.J. (eds) Smith and Nesi’s Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41720-8_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41720-8_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-41719-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-41720-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)