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Three for the Price of One: Dividing a Continent

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Dividing Africa with Policy

Part of the book series: Library of Public Policy and Public Administration ((LPPP,volume 14))

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Abstract

The development of the Union for the Mediterranean began anew with the presidential campaign of Nicolas Sarkozy of France in 2007. This coincided with the introduction of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES). The role of Libya and South Africa during these developments is highlighted, especially regarding the covert discussions involving Col Muammar Ghaddafi. This chapter discusses the UfM and the JAES, and also their interactions with other EU policy frameworks.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Seale, A. 2019. Former French leader Nicolas Sarkozy haunted by Gaddafi’s spy. TRT World online 25 February.

  2. 2.

    Penney, J. 2018. Why did the US and its Allies Bomb Libya? Corruption case against Sarkozy sheds new light on ousting of Ghaddafi. The Intercept. 28 April. Seale, A. 2019. Former French leader Nicolas Sarkozy haunted by Gaddafi’s spy. TRT World online 25 February.

  3. 3.

    Waterfield, B. 2008. Gaddafi attacks Sarkozy plan for Union of the Med. The Telegraph online. 10 July.

  4. 4.

    Stephan Hofstatter and Mzilikazi wa Afrika, 2013. Gaddafi billions found in SA. Times Live online 2 June; n.n. 2019. Gaddafi’s stolen loot may have been hidden in Nkandla – here’s what you need to know about the origins of the money. Business Insider online. 7 April; Dolley, K. 2018. Shot ex-Gaddafi banker not target of a hit – police. News24 online 14 May.

  5. 5.

    In the attached Annex to the Paris Declaration, these aspects as well as a few more are considered to be the “future of the Euro-Mediterranean region.” “Annex”. Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean, 13 July 2008. op.cit. p. 18/20.

  6. 6.

    The European Commission Communication 2008/319 Final/EU of 20 May 2008 refers to “projects” of the UfM and “Initiatives”, which appear to be interchangeable; the Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit (July 2008) refers to “Key initiatives”, and the Marseille Final Statement (November 2008) reverts to “projects” and “Fields of Cooperation”. See Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean, Paris, 13 July 2008, Ibid. p. 8.ff.; and Council of the European Union Presse 2008 15187/08 (Presse 314)/EU of 9 November 2008 Barcelona Process : Union for the Mediterranean Ministerial Conference, Marseille, 3–4 November 2008. Final Declaration [online] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0319&from=EN

  7. 7.

    This of course excludes alternative representations, and places other political activism that still query the two-state solution, on the outside of the Partnership, and presumably the EU.

  8. 8.

    One from the EU side compatible with external representation according to the Treaty in force. Under the terms of the Lisbon Treaty, EU external representation is from the Presidency of the European Council and the President of the Commission (at the level of Heads of State and Government), and the High Representative/Vice President of the Commission, at the level of Ministers of Foreign Affairs. European Commission Communication 2008/319 Final/EU of 20 May 2008 on the Barcelona Process : Union for the Mediterranean. [online] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0319&from=EN p. 6.

  9. 9.

    The Euro-Mediterranean Regional and Local Assembly (ARLEM), consists of eighty members: forty members of the Mediterranean partners and forty members of the European Union (including thirty-two members of the Committee of Regions and eight members of European associations of local and regional authorities active in the Euro-Mediterranean. See “What is it?” Euro-Mediterranean Regional and Local Assembly [online] http://cor.europa.eu/en/activities/arlem/Documents/arlem-leaflet-en.pdf [accessed 04 Nov. 2014].

  10. 10.

    When funding from the Community “normal procedures and selection rules apply”. If in the event projects fulfil the objectives of EU regional integration programmes, they may also be eligible for funding. Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean, Paris, 13 July 2008. Ibid. p. 17/20.

  11. 11.

    Differentiated integration: the concept allows groups of lesser developed states to collaborate with each other. However, here it is a stipulation of the projects. See “Variable Geometry Europe”, Europa: Summaries of Legislation– Glossary. [online] http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/glossary/variable_geometry_europe_en.htm [accessed 23 Jan. 2013].

  12. 12.

    At the time of writing, Britain is still negotiating its terms of leaving the EU.

  13. 13.

    The “freedoms” as referenced for example, in the UN General Assembly A/RES/60/1 (143) definition of Human Security. See United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 60 (2005) World Summit Outcome/adopted by the General Assembly, 24 October 2005, A/RES/60/1 (2005) [online] http://www.ifrc.org/docs/idrl/I520EN.pdf

  14. 14.

    Literally “To integrate in our agenda common responses to global challenges….” Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU of 9 December 2007 The Africa EU Strategic Partnership. A Joint Africa-EU Strategy. Lisbon. [online] http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/er/97496.pdf [accessed 29/10/2014] p. 6.

  15. 15.

    Actually initiated in a work by Sorensen et al., in 2002, bringing together a so-called “immigration-Development Nexus”, and viewing “migrants as a development resource”. Sorensen, N.N., van Hear, N., and Engberg-Pedersen, P., 2002. In van Hear, N., and Sorensen, N.N., 2003. The Migration Development-Nexus. Geneva: IOM [online]: http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/Migration_Dev_Nexus.pdf; Lavenex, S., and Kunz, R., 2009. “The Migration-Development Nexus in EU External Relations”. In Carbone, M., (Ed.) 2009. Policy Coherence and EU Development Policy. [e-book Adobe DRM pdf version] Oxford: Routledge. p. 116.

  16. 16.

    “Strengthened dialogue” and “institutional cooperation”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Press 291)/EU. op.cit. p. 5.

  17. 17.

    These are the EU Concept for Strengthening African Capabilities for the Prevention, Management and Resolution of Conflicts, the EU Joint Policy Framework on Security Sector Reform; the EU Concept on Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration; the African Peace Facility (APF). Council of the European Union 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 6.

  18. 18.

    All the EU “instruments” referred to as relevant. See Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 6.

  19. 19.

    The Africa – EU Partnership on Peace and Security will work on the establishment and adoption of multilateral, regional and national structures to “support” commitments made in this area, as well as and up to the global level with the United Nations Security Council and the construction of Resolutions. Cooperation will also take the form of information sharing, law enforcement, institutional capacity building, and judicial cooperation and will include “matters relating to counter-terrorism”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 7.

  20. 20.

    Human rights actions and the reinforcement of human rights values are to be pursued not only at a continental level in the various institutions present (European Court of Human Rights of the council of Europe; the African court on Human and Peoples’ Rights; the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights; the African Committee on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the African and European national Human Rights institutions), but also in conjunction with and reference to global institutions and frameworks such as international humanitarian law and the UN Human Rights Council. The International Criminal Court (ICC) is acknowledged as a primary mechanism for the upkeep and prosecution of “serious crimes to the international community as a whole” detailed as crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 8.

  21. 21.

    The inclusion of cultural goods in the Partnership was a contentious point, with the EU not wanting it to be included at the time. Egypt in particular was driving concerns over the return of African cultural goods being held in museums and other cultural institutions. It subsequently led to the hold up of the other areas in the Partnership, with a final breakthrough being made only in 2014 at the Workshop of the Fight Against Illegal Trafficking of Cultural Goods, held in Casablanca. See DGEP 2014, p. 22.

  22. 22.

    The rule of law and democratic governance in line with regional and international standards (such as national Human Rights Commissions; national parliaments; independent electoral commissions; the UN-endorsed Declaration of Principles for International Election observation of 2005 and the Durban Declaration on the Principles Guiding Democratic Elections in Africa) will be supported by the EU and AU, together and with involvement from regional organisations and civil society. Loc. cit.

  23. 23.

    The Africa-EU partnership aims to “harmonise” regulations and create “investment friendly legal frameworks” to facilitate foreign investment and promote “Corporate Social Responsibility”. Three key areas of improvement are stated as bringing conformity with international standards and facilitating Africa’s entry into international trade market. These are sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, pharmaceutical production and regulation, and promoting “environmental friendly technologies and products”. Sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures (SPSs), especially in the African agriculture and food processing industry, are deemed essential. It is understood that conformity to these standards will enable Africa to enter the international market, better trade with South-South regions and be able to export with fewer imposed trade tariffs. Both Africa and the EU will actively promote trade and market access for African good and services, but with particular emphasis in accessing the EU market. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU Ibid. pp. 10–11.

  24. 24.

    Trade and African integration into “rules-based world trading” as far as they are seen to support economic growth, are comprehended as means to eradicating poverty. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 11.

  25. 25.

    Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic Monetary Union/Union economique et monetaire ouest Africaine (or UEMOA), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), CEMAC, COMESA, Southern African Development Community (SADC), Southern African Customs Union (SACU), East African States (EAS), East African Community (EAC) and the IOC.

  26. 26.

    West Africa, Central Africa, Eastern and Southern Africa.

  27. 27.

    Improving pharmaceutical production in line with international rules on good manufacturing practices, along with efficient regulatory procedures. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07(Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 11.

  28. 28.

    In conjunction, access to “affordable, essential generic medicines, vaccines and commodities for major prevailing diseases and epidemics” will be promoted. African countries are urged to make use of the “flexibilities” that Trade Related Intellectual Property (TRIPs) agreements allow in accordance to the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plan for Africa. Loc. cit.

  29. 29.

    The following areas are seen as possible areas of negotiation to bring the Agenda to conclusion: trade distorting subsidies, greater access to WTO member markets, reductions in tariff peaks, better anti-dumping rules, and reforms to guarantee supply. Furthermore, Africa and the EU will work together to build institutional and technical capacity on Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary Standards, Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), quality and food safety, industrial goods and commodity issues. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07(Presse 291)/EU. Ibid.pnt.48. p. 12.

  30. 30.

    They are the following: End Poverty and Hunger; Universal Education; Gender equality; Child Health; Maternal Health; Combat HIV/AIDs; Environmental Sustainability; Global Partnership. United Nations Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015 [online] www.un.org/milleniumgoals [accessed 7 Aug. 2012].

  31. 31.

    Once again, the EU and Africa commit to enhancing their “cooperation” on statistics so that policies and decisions are made on “clear evidence”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.48. p. 12.

  32. 32.

    As well as other kinds of cooperation, non-aid policies are seen as key to contributing to the attainment of the MDGs. In this sense consistency amongst policies with development objectives and other initiatives are to be worked on by both sides. “Triangular” cooperation with third parties or other international actors and between African countries is to be encouraged as a way to ensure consistency or “policy coherence”, with the EU providing the financial or technical assistance as role required. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt. 50. p. 13.

  33. 33.

    The Monterrey Consensus reached in May 2005 is used as a reference and guideline, detailing Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) commitments to Africa. Provisions are made for specific percentage allocations of ODA/GNI of EU member states prior to the 2002 enlargement, those who became members afterwards, and to achieving an overall target of an extra ODA of EUR20 billion by 2010, no less than 50% of which will “benefit the African continent”. Where debt levels become “unsustainable”, partners are to consider debt cancellation within the framework of “existing initiatives and fora”. Loc. cit.

  34. 34.

    Management of aid flows and the implementation of the Paris Declaration on aid Effectiveness are highlighted as well as the EU’s commitment to marry separate aid budgets and instruments to obtain maximum harmonisation and “complementarity”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 13.

  35. 35.

    The concept of “decent work”, as defined by the ILO (1999) as “opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work in conditions of freedom, equity, security, and human dignity”. This concept has since then been mainstreamed in the international development literature, including the Millennium Development Goals and also seen here. In the World Development Report of 2013, decent work and “jobs” have been further explained to have effects that extend from the individual to the wider community providing social value, self-worth, and ultimately social cohesion. See World Bank. 2013. The World Development Report 2013: Jobs. Washington, DC: World Bank. [online] http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTNWDR2013/Resources/8258024-1320950747192/8260293-1322665883147/WDR_2013_Report.pdf.p.15; ILO Decent Work Agenda. [online] http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/decent-work-agenda/lang%2D%2Dde/index.htm

  36. 36.

    Additional focus is to be made on vocational and technical training (TVET), with the specific economic sectors in mind, and endeavouring to ensure that “there are jobs behind education”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 15.

  37. 37.

    This presupposes that the men in their society allow sexual equality and access to education or equality in all three (sexual and reproductive health, employment) areas. See Moghadam and Decker (2014) on the re-structuring role that education can play in social, cultural and religious, political, and economic platforms in Islamic societies, in particular in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Moghadam, V.M., and Decker, T., “Social Change in the Middle East”. In Lust, E., (Ed.) 2014. The Middle East. Thirteenth edition. California: SAGE Publications. p. 94.

  38. 38.

    With reference to Education for All Fast Track Initiative, Plan of Action for the Second Decade of Education for Africa. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.57. p. 14.

  39. 39.

    Both Africa and the EU commit to supporting recruitment, retention, training and the “valorisation” of the teaching profession. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.58. p. 14.

  40. 40.

    By 2010, both partners are to make “efforts” towards “scaling up” universal access to basic health services, HIV/AIDS, TB Malaria prevention, treatment, care and support; cooperation on other pandemics as well as issues relating to meningitis. With reference to the Africa Health Strategy, the EU Project on Human Resources for health, the Abuja commitment, the European Programme for Action to Tackle the Shortage of health Workers in Developing Countries “adequate financing” will constitute 15% for health. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.60. p. 15.

  41. 41.

    Other areas that will be addressed are eliminating illiteracy, fighting against the “feminisation of poverty”; promoting women in decision making positions and peace processes; combat violence and abuse, early forced marriages and the abandonment of female genital mutilation and cutting (FGMC), and other “harmful traditional practices” as outlined in the Beijing Platform for Action and the AU Solemn Declaration of Gender Equality. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.63. p. 15.

  42. 42.

    This would include working on integrating migrants into communities in their countries of destination and making sure that their remittances are directed towards development. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.68. pp. 16–17.

  43. 43.

    “Brain drain” in the health and education sectors is also highlighted as a concern. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU Ibid. pnt.70. p. 17.

  44. 44.

    Both the EU and Africa commit to enhancing PCD, as it relates to fisheries’ access arrangements, trade and control of illegal fishing, notably through the Fisheries Partnerships Agreements (FPAs). Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pp. 17–18.

  45. 45.

    Food security covers increasing domestic and foreign investment and rural diversification. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p 17.

  46. 46.

    Food safety incorporates disease surveillance in livestock, combating avian flu, risk management; and food quality comprises of complying with and regional and international trade and sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards. Loc. cit.

  47. 47.

    Research is to be aimed at development and using bio technology to its full advantage, in line with and guided by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.73. p.18.

  48. 48.

    Institutional strengthening includes supporting farmer organisations, inter-professional associations, and African public and private organisations in the agricultural sector.

  49. 49.

    This approach to resource control is recognised by Partha Dasgupta: [Natural assets] “…remain isolated from the main body of contemporary economic thinking…” (Dasgupta cited in Collier, 2010:9). Collier goes on – “Even when economists incorporate nature, they treat it as they do any other asset: natural capital is simply part of the capital stock to be exploited for the benefit of mankind”. Collier, P., 2010. The Plundered Planet. London: Penguin Group. p. 9.

  50. 50.

    With regards to African fisheries resources (inland and coastal), they are believed to be able to “contribute substantially” to economic growth and hence linked to the reduction of poverty. Fishery resources are therefore identified as means to an end. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p.18.

  51. 51.

    Trans African Road Transport corridors and accompanying regional road and rail networks, ports, air and maritime safety and security are to be enhanced by increased investments and an overall upgrading in infrastructure. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.75. p.18.

  52. 52.

    Partners agree that to improve energy infrastructure especially as it pertains to electricity, on joint standards and regulation procedures, and the removal of non-physical barriers for energy exchange/delivery across national/regional borders. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.78. p 18.

  53. 53.

    Improving water management at local river basis and catchment, national and trans-boundary level. The section on Water and Sanitation also addresses hygiene education, “proper” sanitation, “water security” and climate change, and “sustainable access to safe affordable water supplies”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.79. p. 19.

  54. 54.

    Providing sustainable, affordable, clean and efficient energy and regional cooperation in this area concentrating on “energy security” stipulated as diversification of supply, new and renewable energy resources, climate change. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.82. p. 19.

  55. 55.

    Africa can become more “competitive” in the “global economy”. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.84. p. 19.

  56. 56.

    African Heritage sites, for example, are to be protected and preserved within the framework of the various UNESCO conventions. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.89. p. 20.

  57. 57.

    The Pan African Parliament, the European Parliament, the AU Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC); the EU Economic and Social Committees (EESC); Civil Society including research institutes, think tanks, and civil society organisations. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU Ibid. pnt.110. p. 35.

  58. 58.

    As of 2014, and Civil Society involvement has been less than desired, with requests to be involved more directly, through access to decision making groups. See DGEP, 2014, p. 26, nn 123–125.

  59. 59.

    The Summits are to take stock of progress made in implementation of the commitments, and give further political guidance through the approval of Action Plans. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. p. 21.

  60. 60.

    The Troika representatives will be empowered to speak for each Union. The African meetings will be represented by the current and outgoing presidencies of the AU and the Commission, and will also include the chef de file countries at the expert and senior official levels. The EU side will consist of the current and incoming EU presidency, the European Commission and the EU Council Secretariat. Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt.100. p. 22.

  61. 61.

    Lit. “Africa and the EU will work together to build synergies between existing cooperation agreements in support of the partnership….” Council of the European Union Presse 2007 16344/07 (Presse 291)/EU. Ibid. pnt. 114. pp. 24–25.

  62. 62.

    Dlamini-Zuma’s election to the AU Chair is not without its critics or suspicions. Landsberg and van Wyk refer to Dlamini-Zuma’s election to the AU chairperson as “cadre-deployment”. See van Wyk, J., 2012. In Landsberg, C. and van Wyk, J. (Eds.) 2012. South African Foreign Policy Review, Volume One. p. 283. See also Scholvin, S. Contestation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The foreign policies of Angola, Kenya, Nigeria, vis-a-vis South Africa. In Ebert, H. and Flemes, D. (Eds.) 2018. Regional Powers and Contested Leadership. Palgrave MacMillan.

  63. 63.

    The Africa rising narrative has been a potent, economically driven image within Africa, but has produced little on the ground results in terms of validating its claims. The same could be said of the idea of the African Renaissance, arguably driven by South African former president Thabo Mbeki, which appears (despite political air time at certain points), to be a future (still) yet to come. They are importantly both underpinned by economically driven development. The combined visions have become political rallying points, at times, and have acted as a call for diminutive versions of continentalism prone to isolationism. For discussions on either narratives, see Taylor, I. 2016. Dependency redux: why Africa is not rising, Review of African Political Economy, 43:147, 8–25; Adebajo, A., 2016. Mbeki’s dream of Africa’s renaissance belied South Africa’s schizophrenia, The Conversation [online], 24 April; Ajulu, R., 2007. Thabo Mbeki’s African Renaissance in a globalizing world economy: the struggle for the soul of the continent. Review of African Political Economy, 87: 27–42; Vale, P. and Maseko, S., 1998. South Africa and the African Renaissance, International Affairs, 74(2), 271–287.

  64. 64.

    This strand of dominance is found especially in the Black Consciousness student Movements within South Africa, and could be seen throughout the Fallist movements in general, as they spread across South Africa, and in the UK, to varying degrees and results. Of this new trend, “…the new student politics is asserting an exclusive and aggressive language of black domination.” Jansen, J., 2017. As by Fire: The End of the South African University. Cape Town: Tafelburg Publishers. p. 64.

  65. 65.

    Article 19 of the 2nd Aspiration of Agenda 2063 refers – “Since 1963, the quest for African Unity has been inspired by the spirit of Pan-Africanism, focusing on liberation, and political and economic independence. It is motivated by development based on self-reliance and self-determination of African people, with democratic and people-centred governance.” African Union Commission. 2015. Agenda 2063: the Africa we want. p. 4.

  66. 66.

    Mahmoud Jabril, who was head of Libya’s National Transitional Council at the time, refused to counter a coalition government that included the late Muammar Ghaddafi. The suggestion, reportedly made by Jacob Zuma to Jabril, was an about-turn on previous meetings’ conversations between the two during the AU led peace negotiations in 2011. It has since been alleged that former South African (sitting) president Zuma “assisted” Ghaddafi in spiriting away “billions” of USD and gold bullion. Other reports contend that Jacob Zuma’s about-turn is due to apprehension that the same kind of deposition sweeping North Africa could set a standard for other African countries – specifically South Africa. See Fabricius, P. 2015. Four Years after the Libyan revolution, what happened between South Africa and Libya remains a mystery. ISS [online], May 25.

  67. 67.

    Jacob Zuma went on to say “I thought the AU and EU are equal organisations representing two continents but there is not a single one of them who must decide for others…” Fabricius, P. 2014. Zuma will boycott EU Summit. IOL [online], March 21.

  68. 68.

    The ANC General Council Discussion Documents are presented prior to the party conference, held every 4 years. They are seen to provide an indication of the government/ruling party’s domestic and foreign policy leanings.

  69. 69.

    This was later withdrawn after a legal process within South Africa. 2017. South Africa Revokes its withdrawal from the ICC. ENCA [online], March 8.

  70. 70.

    The Valetta Summit Declaration was issued in 2015 after the EU-Africa Summit in 2014 had resolved to address the migration crises in the Mediterranean. It brings together countries of the EU and Africa, under the JAES. See EU-Africa website 2015 Valetta Summit on Migration [online] https://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/en/stay-informed/news/2015-valletta-summit-migration

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  1. Department of Politics, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Gauteng, South Africa

    Lara Hierro

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Hierro, L. (2020). Three for the Price of One: Dividing a Continent. In: Dividing Africa with Policy. Library of Public Policy and Public Administration, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41302-6_6

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