Skip to main content

IT’s Impressive, but Sometimes Misleading Track Record

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Managing Knowledge in Organizations
  • 587 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter, technology’s (robotics, learning algorithms, artificial intelligence (AI), etc.) impressive progress and inroads are briefly presented. Anthropomorphisms associated to AI and learning algorithms are then discussed, followed by AI’s current limitations regarding the Turing Test. Natural language conversation remains a human endeavor because of its messy, ambiguous, uncertain, and complex nature. Involving an entanglement of tacit, explicit, social, and individual dimensions, natural language’s success can only be achieved across mètis—which, in turn, and as we have argued in previous chapters, is a uniquely human capability. The chapter concludes, across arguments and justifications, how artificial systems which draw upon IT technologies such as robots and AI are powerful tools able to process a staggering quantity of data and data sources across manipulations and calculations which humans alone cannot handle. This is the stuff of defined complexity. On the other hand, such systems without human intervention can quickly lead to flawed decision outcomes and actions in the face of environments, which, more often than not, involve an intricate and interwoven combination of complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Armstrong, E., & Ferguson, A. (2010). Language, Meaning, Context, and Functional Communication. Aphasiology, 24(4), 480–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arulkumaran, K., Deisenroth, M. P., Brundage, M., & Bharath, A. A. (2017). Deep Reinforcement Learning: A Brief Survey. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 34(6), 26–38. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2017.2743240. issn: 1053–5888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Autor, D. H. (2015). Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 29(3), 3–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumard, P. (1999). Tacit Knowledge in Organizations. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bel-Enguix, G., & Jiménez-Lôpez, M. D. (2010). Language as a Complex System: Interdisciplinary Approaches. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloor, D. (1973). Wittgenstein and Mannheim on the Sociology of Mathematics. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 4(2), 173–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogost, I. (2012). Alien Phenomenology or What It’s Like to Be a Thing. London: University of Minnesota Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bolmsjö, G. S. (1992). Industriell robotteknik. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunsson, N. (1990). Deciding for Responsibility and Legitimation: Alternative Interpretations of Organizational Decision-Making. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 15, 47–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A. (2014). The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies. New York: WW Norton & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, B., & Miller, T. (2017). Machine Learning for Policymakers. Paper, Cyber Security Project, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/MachineLearningforPolicymakers.pdf

  • Bush, V. (1945, July). As We May Think. The Atlantic Monthly.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M. (2016). 20 Years Later, Humans Still No Match for Computers on the Chessboard. NPR. Retrieved June 10, 2017, from http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/10/24/499162905/20-years-later-humans-still-no-match-for-computers-on-the-chessboard

  • Captain, S. (2017). Can IBM’s Watson Do It All? Fast Company. Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://www.fastcompany.com/3065339/can-ibms-watson-do-it-all

  • Carlile, P. R. (2002). A Pragmatic View of Knowledge and Boundaries: Boundary Objects in New Product Development. Organization Science, 13(4), 442–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, A. (2018). IBM’s Watson Gave Unsafe Recommendations for Treating Cancer. https://www.theverge.com/2018/7/26/17619382/ibms-watson-cancer-ai-healthcare-science

  • Chia, R. (1994). The Concept of Decision: A Deconstructive Analysis. Journal of Management Studies, 31, 781–806.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choo, C. W. (1991). Towards an Information Model of Organizations. The Canadian Journal of Information Science, 16(3), 32–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, H. (2010). Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, J. J. (1989). Introduction to Robotic Mechanics and Control. New York: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cussins, A. (1992). Content, Embodiment and Objectivity. The Theory of Cognitive Trails. Mind, 101(404), 651–688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dane, E., Rockmann, K. W., & Pratt, M. G. (2012). When Should I Trust My Gut? Linking Domain Expertise to Intuitive Decision-Making Effectiveness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 119, 187–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dejoux, C., & Léon, E. (2018). Métamorphose des managers. Paris: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewulf, A., Craps, M., Bouwen, R., Taillieu, T., & Pahl-Wostl, C. (2005). Integrated Management of Natural Resources: Dealing with Ambiguous Issues, Multiple Actors and Diverging Frames. Water Science and Technology, 52(6), 115–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (2005). Peripheral Vision Expertise in Real World Contexts. Organization Studies, 26(5), 779–792.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elish, M., & Boyd, D. (2018). Situating Methods in the Magic of Big Data and AI. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 57–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faraj, S., Pachidi, S., & Sayegh, K. (2018). Working and Organizing in the Age of the Learning Algorithm. Information and Organization, 28, 62–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fedorenko, E., & Varley, R. (2016). Language and Thought Are Not the Same Thing: Evidence from Neuroimaging and Neurological Patients. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1369, 132–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrucci, D. A. (2012). Introduction to “This Is Watson”. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 56(3.4).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishburn, P. C. (1979). Utility Theory for Decision Making. Reprint edition 1979 with corrections. New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, A. J., Shi, W., Fischer, R., & Friedman, C. P. (2016). Digital Knowledge Objects and Digital Knowledge Object Clusters: Unit Holdings in a Learning Health System Knowledge Repository. The 49th Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences Proceedings.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2013). The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerization? Oxford: Oxford Martin School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guiette, A., & Vandenbempt, K. (2016). Learning in Times of Dynamic Complexity Through Balancing Phenomenal Qualities of Sensemaking. Management Learning, 47(1), 83–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, M. T., Demuth, H. B., Beale, M. H., & Jesús, O. D. (2014). Neural Network Design (2nd ed.). Stillwater: Martin Hagan Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassabis, D. (2017, April 21).The Mind in the Machine. FT Financial.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holford, W. D. (2019). The Future of Human Creative Knowledge Work Within the Digital Economy. Futures, 105, 143–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holodny, E. (2017, May 24). One of the Greatest Chess Players of All Time, Gary Kasparov, Talks About Artificial Intelligence and the Interplay Between Machine Learning and Humans. Business Insider.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarrahi, M. H. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Work: Human-AI Symbiosis in Organizational Decision Making. Business Horizons. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.007.

  • Kahneman, D. (2003). A Perspective on Judgement and Choice. American Psychologist., 58(9), 697–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Klein, G. (2009). Conditions for Intuitive Expertise. American Psychologist, 64(6), 515–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, A., & Haenlein, M. (2019). Siri, Siri, in My Hand: Who’s the Fairest in the Land? On the Interpretations, Illustrations, and Implications of Artificial Intelligence. Business Horizons, 62(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasparov, G. (2017). Deep Thinking: Where Machine Intelligence Ends and Human Creativity Begins. New York: PublicAffairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. J. (2000). Mindful Learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(2), 220–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latour, B. (2006). A Textbook Case Revisited: Knowledge as Mode of Existence. In E. Hackett, O. Amsterdamska, M. Lynch, & J. Wacjman (Eds.), The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies –Third Edition (pp. 83–112). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015). Deep Learning. Nature, 521(7553), 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, D., & Swap, W. (2004). Deep Smarts. Harvard Business Review, 30(2), 157–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorino, P., Tricard, B., & Clot, Y. (2011). Research Methods for Non-Representational Approaches to Organizational Complexity: The Dialogical Mediated Inquiry. Organization Studies, 32(6), 769–801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lupyan, G., & Dale, R. (2010). Language Structure Is Partly Determined by Social Structure. PLoS One, 5, e8559. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddieson, I. (1984). Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Manyika, J., Lund, S., Chui, M., Bughin, J., Woetzel, J., Batra, P., & Ko, R. (2017). Jobs Lost, Jobs Gained: Workforce Transitions in a Time of Automation (pp. 1–148). McKinsey Global Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marneffe, M.-C., Manning, C. D., & Potts, C. (2012). Did It Happen? The Pragmatic Complexity of Veridicality Assessment. Computational Linguistics, 38, 301–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marwala, T. (2015). Causality, Correlation and Artificial Intelligence for Rational Decision Making. Singapore: World Scientific.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McComb, K., & Semple, S. (2005). Coevolution of Vocal Communication and Sociality in Primates. Biology Letters, 1, 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. (2009). The Heart of Love. London: Tate Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. J., & Wilson, D. C. (2006). Perspectives on Organizational Decision-Making. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W.R. Nord (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies (2nd ed., pp. 469–484). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, T. M. (2006). The Discipline of Machine Learning (No. CMU-ML-06-108). Retrieved from http://reports-archive.adm.cs.cmu.edu/anon/ml/CMU-ML-06-108.pdf

  • Mnih, V. (2015). Human Level Control Through Deep Reinforcement Learning. Nature, 518, 529–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee, S. (2017, April 3). AI v. MD. New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/04/03/ai-versus-md

  • OECD. (2018). OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2018: Adapting to Technological and Societal Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/sti_in_outlook-2018-en.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Palit, A. K., & Popovic, D. (2005). Computational Intelligence in Time Series Forecasting: Theory and Engineering Applications. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papadakis, V. M., Lioukas, S., & Chambers, D. (1998). Strategic Decision-Making Processes: The Role of Management and Context. Strategic Management Journal, 19, 115–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parry, K., Cohen, M., & Bhattacharya, S. (2016). Rise of the Machines: A Critical Consideration of Automated Leadership Decision Making in Organizations. Group and Organization Management, 41(5), 571–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patokorpi, E. (2009). What Could Abductive Reasoning Contribute to Human Computer Interaction? A Technology Domestication View. PsychNology, 7(1), 113–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piantadosi, S. T., Tily, H., & Gibson, E. (2012). The Communicative Function of Ambiguity in Language. Cognition, 122(3), 280–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal Knowledge. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerol, J. C. (1997). Artificial Intelligence and Human Decision Making. European Journal of Operational Research, 99, 3–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proudfoot, D. (2011). Anthropomorphism and AI: Turingʼs Much Misunderstood Imitation Game. Artificial Intelligence, 175(5–6), 950–957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S., & Norvig, P. (2010). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadler-Smith, E., & Shefy, E. (2004). Understanding and Applying ‘Gut Feel’ in Decision-Making. The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005), 18(4), 76–91. Decision-Making and Firm Success.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saurí, R., & Pustejovsky, J. (2012). Are You Sure That This Happened? Assessing the Factuality Degree of Events in Text. Computational Linguistics, 38, 261–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, S. (1991). A Man Without Words. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. C. (1998). Seing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human State have Failed. Binghamton: Vail-Ballou Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver, D., Schrittwieser, J., Simonyan, K., Antonoglou, I., Huang, A., Guez, A., & Hassabis, D. (2017). Mastering the Game of Go Without Human Knowledge. Nature, 550(7676), 354–359. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H. A. (1982). Theories of Bounded Rationality. In H. A. Simon (Ed.), Models of Bounded Rationality. Behavioral Economics and Business Organization (Vol. 1, pp. 408–423). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simonite, T. (2016, March 31). How Google Plans to Solve Artificial Intelligence. MIT Technology Review.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, C. C., Fjeldstad, Ø. D., & Langer, A. M. (2017). Designing the Digital Organization. Journal of Organization Design, 6, 7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spong, M. W., Hutchinson, S., & Vidyasagar, M. (2006). Robot Modeling and Control. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchman, L. A. (2009). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taves, M. (2016). Google’s Alpha Go Isn’t Taking Over the World, Yet. CNET. https://www.cnet.com/news/googles-alphago-isnt-taking-over-the-world-yet/

  • Tsoukas, H. (2003). Do We Really Understand Tacit Knowledge. In M. Easterby-Smith & M. Lyles (Eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management (pp. 410–427). New York: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsoukas, H. (2009). A Dialogical Approach to the Creation of New Knowledge in Organizations. Organization Science, 20(6), 941–957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsoukas, H. (2010). Strategic Decision Making and Knowledge: A Heideggerian Approach. In P. C. Nutt & D. C. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of Decision Making (pp. 379–402). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turing, A. (1950). Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind, 49, 433–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, W., Harremoës, P., Rotmans, J., Van der Sluijs, J., Van Asselt, M., Jansen, P., & Krayer von Krauss, M. P. (2003). Defining Uncertainty: A Conceptual Basis for Uncertainty Management in Model-Based Decision Support. Journal of Integrated Assessment, 4(1), 5–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallén, J. (2008). The History of the Industrial Robot. Technical Report from Automatic Control at Linköpings universitet, Report no.: LiTH-ISY-R-2853.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in Organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weick, K. E. (2009). Making Sense of the Organization (Volume 2): The Impermanent Organization. Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weick, K. E. (2015). Ambiguity as Grasp: The Reworking of Sense. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 23(2), 117–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wittgenstein, L. (1972). Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, H., Miao, C., Chen, Y., Fauvel, S., Li, X., & Lesser, V. R. (2017). Algorithmic Management for Improving Collective Productivity in Crowdsourcing. Scientific Reports, 7 (Online). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12757-x.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to W. David Holford .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Holford, W.D. (2020). IT’s Impressive, but Sometimes Misleading Track Record. In: Managing Knowledge in Organizations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41156-5_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics