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Containing Diversity: National Distinction and International Style

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Touring Variety in the Asia Pacific Region, 1946–1975

Part of the book series: Transnational Theatre Histories ((TTH))

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Abstract

Between the 1950s and the 1970s, governments across Asia and the Pacific invested in the construction of civic theatres. Built to showcase the artistic achievements and cultural traditions of city-states and nations, these theatres also provided platforms for international exchange. How was the promotion of national distinction in government-constructed theatres related to the regional network of international touring? Comparing simultaneous developments in Tokyo, Sydney, Hong Kong, Singapore, Manila, and Taipei, this chapter reveals unexpected continuities in architectural design, entrepreneurial endeavour, and arts programming between government-built theatres and the region’s commercial nightclubs. Whatever their architectural distinction, the region’s ‘national’ theatres continued the series of functionally equivalent containers for touring variety that commercial circuits had introduced.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, for example, Steven A. Wolff, ‘The Evolved Performing Arts Centre’, Encore: Arts Centre Melbourne’s Supporter Magazine 5 (2015), 68–73.

  2. 2.

    Henry-Russell Hitchcock Jr. and Philip Johnson, The International Style: Architecture since 1922 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1932).

  3. 3.

    Alfred H. Barr Jr., ‘Foreword’, Modern Architecture: International Exhibition (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1932), 14–15.

  4. 4.

    Loren Kruger, ‘The National Stage and the Naturalized House: (Trans)National Legitimation in Modern Europe’, in National Theatres in a Changing Europe, ed. S.E. Wilmer (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 34–35; see also Loren Kruger, The National Stage: Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in England, France, and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

  5. 5.

    Articulating ‘national distinction’ and ‘international style’ in architecture was the focus of sustained debate in post-war Japan; see Jonathan M. Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio and the Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 214–21; some architecture competitions for government commissions in Japan were restricted to invited submissions only.

  6. 6.

    Rumiko Hand, ‘Nihon Kosaku Bunka Renmei’, in Encyclopedia of 20th Century Architecture, vol. 2, ed. R. Stephen Sennott (New York; London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2004), 736–37.

  7. 7.

    Shirai Seiichi (白井晟一). ‘Tradition’s New Crisis: Our National Theatre’ (伝統の新 しい危険 われわれの国立劇場建設), Asahi Shimbun (朝日新聞), 22 November 1958, 7; translated in Torben Berns, ‘The Paradox of a Modern (Japanese) Architecture’, PhD dissertation (McGill University, Montreal, 2002), 152–53.

  8. 8.

    Shirai, trans. Berns, ‘The Paradox of a Modern (Japanese) Architecture’, 154.

  9. 9.

    Shirai, trans. Berns, ‘The Paradox of a Modern (Japanese) Architecture’, 157; translation adjusted.

  10. 10.

    Barbara E. Thornbury ‘Restoring an Imagined Past: The National Theatre and the Question of Authenticity in Kabuki’, Asian Theatre Journal 19.1 (2002), 161–83.

  11. 11.

    Neil Jackson, ‘The Westernisation of the Japanese Performance Venue, 1870–1970’, in Setting the Scene: Perspectives on Twentieth-Century Theatre Architecture, ed. Alistair Fair (London; New York: Routledge, 2015), 61–79, at 72.

  12. 12.

    ‘Cabaret’ (キャバレー), Kenchiku Shashin Bunko (建築写真文庫) 1.14 (1954); ‘Nightclub’ (ナイトクラブ), Kenchiku Shashin Bunko (建築写真文庫) 1.15 (1954).

  13. 13.

    Satow opened his own architectural office in 1946 and left the university for full-time practice in 1951; see Takeo Satow, Architect (Tokyo: Committee for the Publication of the Works of Takeo Satow, 1963).

  14. 14.

    Motoo Take, ‘Mature balance between art and science’, in Takeo Satow, Architect, 101.

  15. 15.

    Ryo Yanagi, ‘The hard-boned architect’, in Takeo Satow, Architect, 104.

  16. 16.

    Satow uses another basket-weave pattern in bas-relief to decorate the brick façade of the New Japan Hotel.

  17. 17.

    Yamomoto Shintaro (山本信太郎), The History of Night Club New Latin Quarter Music Show (昭和が愛したニューラテンクォーター) (Tokyo: Du Books, 四六版, 2013).

  18. 18.

    Advertisement for the Chevron-Hilton Hotel, Australian Women’s Weekly, 28 September 1960, 30; see also Paul Hogben and Judith O’Callaghan (eds.), Leisure Space: The Transformation of Sydney, 1945–1970 (Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, 2014), 52–62.

  19. 19.

    Minerva Centre Ltd. Prospectus (Sydney, 1937), State Library of New South Wales, Pam file/Q981.5-Q982.

  20. 20.

    Minerva Centre Ltd. Prospectus.

  21. 21.

    ‘Elaborate Theatres: New filip to city’s night life, big venture at King’s Cross’, Sun, 12 September 1937, 9; ‘Minerva shares over-subscribed’, Sun, 19 December 1937, 8; ‘World’s “most modern” theatre: New Sydney playhouse’, Daily Telegraph, 24 April 1939, 20; ‘Minerva Theatre’, Sydney Morning Herald, 16 May 1939, 5.

  22. 22.

    ‘Land for park: Council’s compromise decision, Minerva site to be resumed’, Sydney Morning Herald, 20 December 1938, 14; ‘Macleay St. site chosen for park’, Daily Telegraph, 20 December 1938, 7. The Minerva was later sold to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and converted to a cinema in 1950.

  23. 23.

    An International Competition for a National Opera House at Bennelong Point, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia: Conditions and Programme (NSW Government, Sydney, 1955), https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/archives/magazine/galleries/sydney-opera-house-the-brown-book, accessed 12 August 2019.

  24. 24.

    Australian Women’s Weekly, 12 October 1960, 9.

  25. 25.

    Ivor Indyk, ‘The Silver Spade’ in In the Gutter… Looking at the Stars: A Literary Adventure Through Kings Cross, ed. Mandy Sayer and Louis Nowra (Milsons Point, NSW: Random House Australia, 2000), 242.

  26. 26.

    Sydney Morning Herald, 20 September 1960, 27–33.

  27. 27.

    ‘New City Hall: Details of Revised Scheme Revealed’, South China Morning Post (SCMP), 4 June 1954, 1.

  28. 28.

    Marvin Carlson, ‘National Theatres: Then and Now’, in National Theatres in a Changing Europe, ed. S.E. Wilmer (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 21–33, at 28.

  29. 29.

    City Hall: Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Government Information Services, c. 1966), held at City Hall Public Library, Hong Kong.

  30. 30.

    Alan Smart, Shek Kip Mei Myth: Squatters, Fires and Colonial Rule in Hong Kong, 1950–1963 (Hong Kong University Press, 2006).

  31. 31.

    ‘Hong Kong City Hall: Governor’s Opening Speech’, SCMP, City Hall Supplement, 3 March 1962, 1.

  32. 32.

    Ruby Yu, ‘A Civic Unity’, SCMP, City Hall Supplement, 3 March 1963, 7; Hilton Cheong-Leen, ‘The City Hall and Citizenship’, SCMP, 3 March 1962, City Hall Supplement, 15.

  33. 33.

    ‘Harry Odell: Stockbroker and impresario’, SCMP, 22 December 1975, 18.

  34. 34.

    Advertisement, SCMP, 3 March 1962, City Hall Supplement, 11.

  35. 35.

    Michele Triagci, ‘City Hall gave him a new lease on life’, South China Sunday Post-Herald, 19 April 1964, 4.

  36. 36.

    Priscilla Roberts, ‘Cold War Hong Kong: Juggling Opposing Forces and Identities’, in Hong Kong in the Cold War, ed. Priscilla Roberts and John M. Carroll (Hong Kong University Press, 2016), 26–59.

  37. 37.

    Advertisements for Harry Odell at Hong Kong City Hall, SCMP, 1962.

  38. 38.

    Advertisements for City Hall, SCMP, 13 November 1962, 5; 29 November 1962, 4; 10 December 1962, 4.

  39. 39.

    Advertisement for City Hall, SCMP, 22 November 1962, 8.

  40. 40.

    Advertisement for ‘The Great Great Show’, SCMP, 30 April 1962, 8; ‘Entertainers get noisy reception from fans’, SCMP, 15 May 1962, 9; ‘City Hall show: For the young at heart’, SCMP, 16 May 1962, 11.

  41. 41.

    Advertisements for ‘The First Asian Musical Festival’, SCMP, October 1962.

  42. 42.

    Kruger, ‘The National Stage and the Naturalized House’, 45.

  43. 43.

    Valerie Chew, ‘Aneka Ragam Ra’ayat’, Singapore Infopedia, http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_1380_2008-11-22.html, accessed 12 August 2019; Chew cites ‘“Prodigies” for cultural show at park’, Straits Times (ST), 7 August 1959, 4; ‘A community centre puts on a concert’, ST, 20 September 1959, 4; ‘The first night’, ST, 4 December 1959, 4; ‘House is packed again for newspapers’ show’, ST, 5 December 1959, 4.

  44. 44.

    Judith Boyd, Letter: ‘“Pop” culture…’, ST, 27 April 1963, 14.

  45. 45.

    ‘Three-race concert at Botanic Gardens’, Singapore Free Press, 31 July 1959, 3.

  46. 46.

    ‘Loyalty Week: National theatre fund launched’, ST, 21 November 1959, 16; ‘To decide theatre shape soon’, ST, 1 February 1960, 4.

  47. 47.

    ‘Culture Minister calls for $1 mil. National Theatre plans’, ST, 19 May 1960, 14.

  48. 48.

    Alfred Wong Hong Kwok, Recollections of Life in an Accidental Nation, ed. Lai Chee Kien (Singapore: Select Publishing, 2016), 127.

  49. 49.

    Wong, Recollections of Life in an Accidental Nation, 33–57.

  50. 50.

    ‘120,000 can hear a performance in Melbourne’s new music bowl’, Singapore Free Press, 30 March 1959, 11.

  51. 51.

    Jennifer Lindsay, ‘Festival Politics: Singapore’s 1963 South-East Asia Cultural Festival’, in Cultures at War: The Cold War and Cultural Expression in Southeast Asia, ed. Tony Day and Maya H.T. Liem (Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 2010), 227–46.

  52. 52.

    South-East Asia Cultural Festival in Commemoration of the Opening of the National Theatre, Singapore, 8–15 August 1963, National Library of Singapore.

  53. 53.

    ‘Medley of dances to symbolise harmony’, ST, 9 August 1963, 11.

  54. 54.

    Daniel Wei Boon Chua, US-Singapore Relations, 1965–1975: Strategic Non-alignment in the Cold War (Singapore: NUS Press, 2017).

  55. 55.

    National Theatre Trust, Annual Reports, 1968, 1969, and 1971, National Archives of Singapore; ‘Millions of Aussies to see S’poreans at Arts Festival’, ST, 25 February 1972, 8.

  56. 56.

    Mok Sin Pin, ‘First of its kind in S.E. Asia’, ST, 2 August 1967, 12.

  57. 57.

    Tan Ooi Boon, ‘Curtain falls on Tropicana’, ST, 31 May 1989, 27; Shaw Sung Ching was not related to the Shaw Brothers.

  58. 58.

    Mok Sin Pin, ‘First of its kind in S.E. Asia’, ST, 2 August 1967, 12.

  59. 59.

    ‘First theatre restaurant in Singapore’, ST, 30 March 1968, 13.

  60. 60.

    Nellie Har, ‘1970: A year of changing scenes and tastes’, ST, 2 January 1971, 4; Ong Thiam Hok, ‘Of nudism and dual standard censorship’, ST, 29 January 1971, 16; ‘Asia’s oriental hotspots’, ST, 22 May 1971, 6; Jackie Sam, ‘The censors!’, New Nation, 5 April 1971, 9; Betty L. Koo and Edgar Koh, ‘Entertainment: Good and bad’, New Nation, 7 June 1972, 9; ‘A grand night on the town and then a dawn breakfast all under one roof’, ST, 17 November 1968, 12.

  61. 61.

    ‘Lavish floor shows to be brought in’, ST, 30 March 1968, 11.

  62. 62.

    The Millionaire Chase (釣金龜), dir. Inoue Umetsugu (井上梅次), Shaw Brothers (Hong Kong) Ltd., Hong Kong, 1969.

  63. 63.

    The characters are Yip Fang (played by Lily Ho 何莉莉), Chang Ping (Chin Ping 秦萍), and Lin Chih-lan (Betty Ting Pei 丁珮).

  64. 64.

    Shyu Ming-Song (徐明松), P.F. Tsai: Unbiased Experimenter of Forms (蔡柏鋒:不帶偏見的形式實驗者) (Taipei: Muma Wenhua 木馬文化, 2012).

  65. 65.

    Advertisements in China News, 1966–69; China Post, 1967–72.

  66. 66.

    ‘The Outsider Says’, China News, 5 April 1966, 2.

  67. 67.

    A photograph in the China News shows a local dancer at the Ambassador in an ‘Arabian night number’, 29 April 1967, 2.

  68. 68.

    ‘Is import of entertainers a net loss?’, editorial, China News, 13 April 1967, 2.

  69. 69.

    The Cultural Center of the Philippines includes the Folk Arts Theater (1974), the Centre for International Trade and Exhibitions (1976), and the International Convention Centre (1976), all designed by Locsin.

  70. 70.

    Nicholas Polites, The Architecture of Leandro V. Locsin (New York; Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1977), 226.

  71. 71.

    Polites, The Architecture of Leandro V. Locsin, 10.

  72. 72.

    Gavin Shatkin, ‘Colonial Capital, Modernist Capital, Global Capital: The Changing Political Symbolism of Urban Space in Metro Manila, the Philippines’, Pacific Affairs 78.4 (2005–06), 577–600, at 586.

  73. 73.

    Christi-Anne Salazar Castro, ‘Music, Politics, and the Nation at the Cultural Center of the Philippines’, PhD dissertation (University of California, Los Angeles, 2001), 206, 218.

  74. 74.

    Jean Battey, ‘Troupe presents Philippine dances’, Washington Post and Times Herald, 23 June 1958, B6; John Martin, ‘The Dance: New Season’, New York Times, 23 August 1959, X12; John Martin, ‘The dance question: Genius—What can we do about it?’, New York Times, 11 October 1959, X25; ‘Philippines has own culture’, Canberra Times, 5 June 1959, 12; ‘Dance reviews: Bayanihan Philippine Co.’, Variety, 21 October 1959, 82.

  75. 75.

    Isabel A. Santos, Bayanihan—The National Folk Dance Company of the Philippines: A Memory of Six Continents (Manila: Anvil, 2004).

  76. 76.

    ‘Tele follow-up comment: Dinah Shore Chevy Show’, Variety, 28 October 1959, 26; Shore sang ‘Far Away Places’, ‘The Inn of the Sixth Happiness’, ‘Getting to Know You’, ‘One Hundred Million Miracles’, and ‘Bali Ha’i’.

  77. 77.

    Advertisement for Bayanihan at the Hong Kong Hilton, Hongkong Standard, 22 April 1967, 5; ‘Bayanihan Folk Dancers to perform for PATA Delegates, Dignitaries [in Taipei]’, China Post, 8 February 1968, 8. Advertisement for Bayanihan at the Singapore Hilton, ST, 2 April 1971, 9.

  78. 78.

    ‘Wild applause for Pacific Pageant’, SCMP, 22 September 1965, 8.

  79. 79.

    Loren Kruger, The National Stage, 11, 17.

  80. 80.

    Even in Tokyo, where cultural policy was not immediately tasked with appealing to a national audience then recently diversified by migration—as was the case in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Sydney—the National Theatre of Japan eventually proliferated venues to accommodate performance across a range of genres, Japanese and Western, traditional and modern, encompassing the international variety in repertoire that had already formed the ‘mix’ in Toho’s touring revues. The National Theatres of Japan currently encompass the National Theatre, the National Engei Hall, the National Noh Theatre, the National Bunraku Theatre, the National Theatre Okinawa, the New National Theatre, Tokyo, and the Traditional Performing Arts Information Centre; see Barbara E. Thornbury, ‘More Than a Home for Madama Butterfly: Why Japan Wanted a New National Theatre’, Mime Journal (2002/2003), 80–91.

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  1. School of the Arts and Media, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Jonathan Bollen

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Correspondence to Jonathan Bollen .

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Bollen, J. (2020). Containing Diversity: National Distinction and International Style. In: Touring Variety in the Asia Pacific Region, 1946–1975. Transnational Theatre Histories. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39411-0_7

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