Abstract
The U.S. national policy pendulum tends to swing between devoting more resources to one set of value preferences over the other. Three key tensions have repeatedly emerged on the policy landscape of the United States: (1) choosing between equity and efficiency; (2) varying reliance on centralized versus decentralized structures; and (3) switching between “civic” and market-driven policy levers. We choose to highlight Minnesota because it illustrates many of the policy tensions and contradictions apparent on the national landscape. These trends exist in the context of an increasingly diverse student body, stable or shrinking school budgets, and expanding demands on the purpose of schools. In many ways, Minnesota’s educational governance system has much in common with other U.S. states: (1) its state agencies are the most powerful policy actors; (2) it faces pressures between equalizing funds versus maintaining local control; and (3) it has increased state legislative response to national discourses. Minnesota also represents our contention that there are 50 distinct structures and patterns of educational governance in the United States. While systemic reform has been the mantra for many US states, Minnesota legislators have tended to tinker around the edges and emphasize voluntary rather than mandated change.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
See https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html for general information on the federal role in U.S. education.
- 2.
The U.S. constitution prevents public funding of religious schools except for support for special education. Most private schools in the U.S. are Catholic. The state enrolling the largest percentage in private schools is Louisiana (slightly more than 15%), while 9 states enroll fewer than 8% in private schools.
- 3.
There are no easily available comparisons of starting teacher salaries in Minnesota because the salary schedule changes frequently due to locally negotiated union agreements. In 2018, the average elementary teacher salary in Minnesota varied between $48,000 and $62,000 per year according to the website salary.com
- 4.
We use PK-12, P-12, and E-12 interchangeably. PK-12 and P-12 both stand for pre-Kindergarten through 12th grade; E-12 stand for early childhood programs through 12th grade. While the nomenclature varies, they typically represent the same set of programs.
- 5.
One of the peculiarities of the U.S. system is that teachers are licensed by individual states, with no national standards or system to ensure easy movement of a qualified teacher from one state to another. Gitomer (2007) concludes, based on a study of 20 states, that an unpredictable confluence of state and federal policy changes, along with program innovations in higher education, has resulted in an overall pattern of more qualified teachers.
- 6.
PELSB is responsible for (1) developing the teacher’s code of ethics; (2) adopting rules to license public school teachers; (3) adopting rules for and approving teacher preparation programs; (4) issuing or denying license applications (5) suspending, revoking, or denying a license based on qualifying grounds; and (6) verification of district and charter school licensure compliance.
- 7.
In spite of their ubiquity, there is little information comparing the role of these agencies among states. An unpublished report for the mid-west region is available (Garcia et al. 2011)
- 8.
Funding arrangements vary widely by state. For example, in Texas the service agencies are regional offices of the state’s education department.
- 9.
Most states have the right to take over districts where boards overlook egregious violations of state policy or fail to provide adequate education. This is, however, uncommon.
References
Alexander, N. A. (2012). Policy analysis for educational leaders: A step-by-step approach. New York: Pearson.
Alexander, N. A. (2019). Minnesota. In D. C. Thompson, R. C. Wood, S. C. Neuenswander, J. M. Heim, & R. D. Watson (Eds.), Funding public schools in the United States and Indian Country (pp. 365–382). Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Alexander, N. A., & Jang, S. T. (2017). Equity and efficiency of Minnesota educational expenditures with a focus on English learners, 2003-2011: A retrospective look in a time of accountability. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(16), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.25.2811.
Alexander, N. A., Jang, S. T., & Kankane, S. (2017, May). The performance cycle: The effectiveness of state policies tying teacher performance, student achievement, and accountability to student achievement. American Journal of Education, 123, 413–446.
Bemelmans-Videc, M. L., Rist, R. C., & Vedung, E. O. (Eds.). (2011). Carrots, sticks, and sermons: Policy instruments and their evaluation. New York: Routledge.
Berne, R., & Stiefel, L. (1999). Concepts of school finance equity: 1970 to the present. In H. F. Ladd, R. Chalk, & J. S. Hansen (Eds.), Equity and adequacy in education finance: Issues and perspectives (pp. 7–33). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Boyd, W. L. (1984). Competing values in educational policy and governance: Australian and American developments. Educational Administration Review, 2, 4–24.
Brown, E. (2017). Trump orders study of federal role in education. Washington Post. Retrieved from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/trump-expected-to-order-study-of-federal-role-in-education/
Carpenter, D. C. (1987, April). Minnesota superintendents’ perceptions of their role and influence in school board agenda setting. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of School Administrators, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 342 049).
Chingos, M. (2017). How progressive is school funding in the United States? Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/research/how-progressive-is-school-funding-in-the-united-states/
Choi, W. S. (2015). The effect of alternative compensation programs on teacher retention and student achievement: The case of Q Comp in Minnesota (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Christiansen, L., & Talbott, B. (2016). History of the Association of Educational Service Agencies. Katy: AESA. Retrieved from: http://www.aesa.us/cms_files/resources/AESA%20History40.pdf
Crenshaw, K. W. (1988). Race, reform, and retrenchment: Transformation and legitimation in antidiscrimination law. Harvard Law Review, 101(7), 1331–1387.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Teacher education and the American future. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 35–47.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2015). Can value added add value to teacher evaluation? Educational Researcher, 44(2), 132–137.
Dragoset, L., Thomas, J., Herrmann, M., Deke, J., James-Burdumy, S., Graczewski, C., Boyle, A., Tanenbaum, C., Giffin, J., & Upton, R. (2016). Race to the top. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. Retrieved from: https://www.mathematica-mpr.com
Editorial Board. (2018, April 24). Proposed system for ranking Minnesota schools needs work. A less complicated, more effective presentation of data is needed.” Star Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/proposed-system-for-ranking-minnesota-schools-needs-work/480423733/
Education Commission of the States. (2015). ECS 50-State Review. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/01/19/47/11947.pdf
Firestone, W. A. (1989). Educational policy as an ecology of games. Educational Researcher, 18(7), 18–24.
Ford, M. R., & Ihrke, D. M. (2016). Board conflict and public performance on urban and non-urban boards: Evidence from a national sample of school board members. Journal of Urban Affairs, 39, 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/juaf.12315.
Fowler, F. C. (2013). Policy studies for educational leaders: An introduction (4th ed.). New York: Pearson.
Garcia, A., Shimmel, L., & Wraight, S. (2011). Characteristics of state educational service agencies. Napierville: REL Midwest. Retrieved from http://www.aesa.us/Archives/research_archives/char_midwest_ed_agencies_030512.pdf
Gitomer, D. H. (2007). Teacher quality in a changing policy landscape: Improvements in the teacher pool. Policy information report. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
Goldberg, M. (1984, March). The essential points of a nation at risk. Educational Leadership, 41(6), 15–16.
Goldhaber, D. D. (1999). School choice: An examination of the empirical evidence on achievement, parental decision making, and equity. Educational Researcher, 28(9), 16–25.
Hackett, J. L. (2015). The high price of superintendent turnover. School Administrator, 72(9), 20–27.
Hanushek, E. A. (1989). The impact of differential expenditures on school performance. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018004045.
Hanushek, E. A. (2003). The failure of input - based schooling policies. The Economic Journal, 113(485), F64–F98. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00099.
Heck, R. H. (2004). Studying educational and social policy: Theoretical concepts and research methods. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Hinrichs, Erin. (2017, September 27). Meet the new Minnesota board that will begin overseeing teacher licensure on Jan. 1. MinnPost. Retrieved from https://www.minnpost.com/education/2017/09/meet-new-minnesota-board-will-begin-overseeing-teacher-licensure-jan-1
Hood, C. (1995). The “new public management” in the 1980s: Variations on a theme. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 20(2–3), 93–109.
Howlett, M. (2009). Governance modes, policy regimes and operational plans: A multi-level nested model of policy instrument choice and policy design. Policy Sciences, 42, 73–89.
Hoxby, C. M. (2003). School choice and school productivity. Could school choice be a tide that lifts all boats? In The economics of school choice (pp. 287–342). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Junge, E. R. (2012). Zero chance of passage: The pioneering charter school story. Edina: Beaver.
Kaput, K. (2017, March 7). 3 things you should know about the proposed Minnesota teacher licensure system. The Innovation and Policy Blog, Education Evolving. Retrieved from https://www.educationevolving.org/blog/2017/03/3-things-you-should-know-about-proposed-minnesota-teacher-licensure-system
Keddie, A. (2015). ‘We haven’t done enough for white working-class children’: Issues of distributive justice and ethnic identity politics. Race Ethnicity and Education, 18(4), 515–534.
Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Kolderie, T. (1990). The states will have to withdraw the exclusive (unpublished paper, public services redesign project; xerox).
Lipman, P., & Hursh, D. (2007). Renaissance 2010: The reassertion of ruling-class power through neoliberal policies in Chicago. Policy Futures in Education, 5(2), 160–178.
Louis, K. S., & Robinson, V. M. (2012). External mandates and instructional leadership: School leaders as mediating agents. Journal of Educational Administration, 50(5), 629–665.
Louis, K., & van Velzen, B. (2012). Political cultures in England and the Netherlands: Similar discourse, different results. In K. S. Louis, L. van Velzen, & B. van Velzen (Eds.), Educational policy in an international context: Political culture and its effects. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Louis, K. S., Thomas, E., Gordon, M. F., & Febey, K. S. (2008). State leadership for school improvement: An analysis of three states. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(4), 562–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X08323858.
Louis, K. S., Leithwood, K., Wahlstrom, K., Anderson, S. E., Mascall, B., Michlin, M., Gordon, M., & Thomas, E. (2010). Learning from districts’ efforts to improve student achievement. Retrieved from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/Documents/Investigating-the-Links-to-Improved-Student-Learning.pdf
Maciag, M. (2017, May 22). How much do states rely on federal funding? Governing. Retrieved from http://www.governing.com/topics/finance/gov-state-budgets-federal-funding-2015-2018-trump.html
Marshall, C., Mitchell, D., & Wirt, F. (1989). Culture and education policy in the American States. New York: Falmer.
Mazzoni, T. L. (1993). The changing politics of state education policy making: A 20-year Minnesota perspective. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(4), 357–379.
McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152.
Minnesota House of Representatives, Fiscal Analysis Department. (2016). Financing education in Minnesota, 2016–2017. Retrieved from https://www.house.leg.state.mn.us/fiscal/files/16fined.pdf
Minnesota Legislative Study Group on Educator Licensing. (2016). Report of the Legislative Study Group on Educator Licensing. Retrieved from https://www.lcc.leg.mn/lsgel/meetings/LSGELReport.pdf
Minnesota Office of the Legislative Auditor. (2016). Evaluation report: Minnesota teacher licensure. Program evaluation division. Retrieved from https://www.auditor.leg.state.mn.us/ped/pedrep/teachers.pdf.
Minnesota Office of the Revisor of Statutes. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.revisor.mn.gov/constitution/
Odden, A., & Picus, L. (2008). School finance: A policy perspective (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Okun, A. M. (2015). Equality and efficiency: The big tradeoff. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press.
Orfield, M. (2015). Why are the twin cities so segregated? Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Retrieved from: https://www1.law.umn.edu/uploads/ed/00/ed00c05a000fffeb881655f2e02e9f29/Why-Are-the-Twin-Cities-So-Segregated-2-26-15.pdf
Osborne, D. (1993). Reinventing government. Public productivity & management Review, 16, 349–356.
Pringle, K. (2018, April 26). Editorial counterpoint : Minnesota should adopt a school rating system. Star Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/editorial-counterpoint-minnesota-should-adopt-a-school-rating-system/480996831/
Rolle, R. A. (2004). Out with the old-in with the new: Thoughts on the future of educational productivity research. Peabody Journal of Education, 79(3), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327930pje7903_3.
Rousseau, C., & Tate, W. F. (2003). No time like the present: Reflecting on equity in school mathematics. Theory Into Practice, 42(3), 210–216.
Stout, K. E., & Stevens, B. (2000). The case of the failed diversity rule: A multiple streams analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 22(4), 341–355.
Timar, T. B. (1997). The institutional role of state education departments: A historical perspective. American Journal of Education, 105(3), 231–260.
United States National Center for Education Statistics (U.S. NCES). (2017). Digest of education statistics. Table 235.20. Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source of funds and state or jurisdiction: 2014–2015. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_235.20.asp?current=yes
Verstegen, D. A. (2017). Policy perspectives on state elementary and secondary public education finance systems in the United States. Educational Considerations, 43(2), 25–32.
Weiler, H. W. (1990). Comparative perspectives on educational decentralization: An exercise in contradiction? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 12(4), 433–448.
Wilson, W., & Nathan, J. (2014). In praise of strong charter schools. Star Tribune. May 23. http://www.startribune.com/in-praise-of-strong-charter-schools/260479981/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Alexander, N.A., Louis, K.S. (2020). Minnesota, USA: Minnesota: Finance and Policy in a High Performing U.S. State. In: Ärlestig, H., Johansson, O. (eds) Educational Authorities and the Schools. Educational Governance Research, vol 13. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38759-4_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38759-4_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-38758-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-38759-4
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)