Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

From the Medieval Disputation to the Graduate School

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Structural and Institutional Transformations in Doctoral Education

Part of the book series: Issues in Higher Education ((IHIGHER))

Abstract

The traditional model of the research-based doctorate without a taught component and modelled on the traditional master-apprentice relationship seems to be changing in Europe. Although some authors argue that this model still prevails despite recent changes, the when and how it has become the ‘traditional’ model in Europe is less discussed. In this chapter, a reflection on current changes in doctoral education from a historical perspective is presented, discussing how the traditional model has been progressively losing centrality in favour of more structured models, such as doctoral schools and other similar structures. The chapter proposes a critical discussion on the emergence of these new structures aiming to institutionalise the new discourses about doctoral education in the context of the knowledge economy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Graduate schools include different postgraduate levels such as masters and PhDs. Doctoral schools only include PhDs.

References

  • Aldrich, J. (2006). The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom. Retrieved August 2, 2018, from http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Doc1.htm

  • Altbach, P. G. (1980). The Crisis of the Professiorate. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 448, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amaral, A., Magalhães, A., & Santiago, R. (2003). The Rise of Academic Managerialism in Portugal. In A. Amaral, V. L. Meek, & I. Larsen (Eds.), The Higher Education Managerial Revolution? (pp. 131–154). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Andres, L., Bengtsen, S., Castaño, L., Crossouard, B., Keefer, J., & Pyhältö, K. (2015). Drivers and Interpretations of Doctoral Education Today: National Comparisons. Frontline Learning Research, 3(3), 5–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auriol, L., Misu, M., & Freeman, R. A. (2013). Careers of Doctorate Holders: Analysis of Labour Market and Mobility Indicators. In OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, 2013/04. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, F. (1620). Novum Organum. London: William Pickering.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banff Principles. (2007). The Banff Principles on Graduate Education. Banff. Retrieved July 26, 2018, from https://www.cgsnet.org/ckfinder/userfiles/files/mtg_BanffPrinciples.pdf

  • Barrier, J., & Musselin, C. (2009). The Rationalization of Academic Work and Careers: Ongoing Transformations of the Profession and Policy Challenges. In B. Kehm, J. Huisman, & B. Stensaker (Eds.), The European Higher Education Area: Perspectives on a Moving Target. Rotterdam: Sense publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becher, T. (1989). Academic Tribes and Territories: Intellectual Enquiry and the Cultures of Disciplines. Milton Keynes: Society for Research into Higher Education/Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergen Communiqué. (2005, May 19–20). The European Higher Education Area—Achieving the Goals. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, Bergen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernal, J. (1967). The Social Function of Science. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogle, D. (2017). 100 Years of the PhD in the UK. Retrieved July 26, 2018, from https://www.vitae.ac.uk/news/vitae-blog/100-years-of-the-phd-by-prof-david-bogle

  • Bruno, G. (1584). La Cena del Ceneri (The Ash Wednesday Supper). 1955. Giovannni Aquilecchia (Ed.). Torino: Enaudi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bucharest Communiqué. (2012, April 26–27). Making the Most of Our Potential: Consolidating the European Higher Education Area. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, Bucharest. Retrieved from http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/2012_Bucharest/67/3/Bucharest_Communique_2012_610673.pdf

  • Cardoso, S., Carvalho, T., & Videira, P. (2019). Is It Still Worth Working in Academia? Portuguese Academics’ Perceptions on the Changes in Their Employment and Working Conditions. Higher Education Policy, 32, 663–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalho, T. (2017). The Study of the Academic Profession—Contributions from and to the Sociology of Professions. Theory and Method in Higher Education Research, 3, 59–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalho, T., & Diogo, S. (2018). Exploring the Relationship Between Institutional and Professional Autonomy: A Comparative Study Between Portugal and Finland. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 40(1), 18–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castro, Á., Guillén-Riquelme, A., Quevedo-Blasco, R., Bermúdez, M. P., & Buela-Casal, G. (2012). Doctoral Schools in Spain: Suggestions of Professors for Their Implementation. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 17(1), 199–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambaz, J., Biaudet, P., & Collonge, S. (2007). Doctoral Education in France. In S. Powell & H. Green (Eds.), The Doctorate Worldwide (pp. 40–51). Berkshire: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, B. (1983). The Higher Education System: Academic Organization in Cross National Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, W. (2006). Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, G., & Powell, S. (2009). Quality and Standards of Postgraduate Research Degrees—2009. Lichfield: UK Council for Graduate Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crossouard, B., Andres, L., Bengtsen, S. S., Castano, L. G., Keefer, J. M., & Pyhalto, K. (2015). Drivers and Interpretations of Doctoral Education Today: National Comparisons. Frontline Learning Research, 3(3), 5–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enders, J., & Musselin, C. (2008). Back to the Future? The Academic Professions in the 21st Century. In Higher Education to 2030 (Vol. 1). Paris: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • EUA (European University Association). (2005). Salzburg Recommendations: Doctoral Programmes for the European Knowledge Society. Brussels: EUA.

    Google Scholar 

  • EUA (European University Association). (2009). Collaborative Doctoral Education: University-Industry Partnerships for Enhancing Knowledge Exchange. Brussels: EUA.

    Google Scholar 

  • EUA (European University Association). (2010). Salzburg II Recommendations: European Universities’ Achievements Since 2005 in Implementing the Salzburg Principles. Brussels: EUA.

    Google Scholar 

  • EUA (European University Association). (2013). Report Quality Assurance in Doctoral Education—Results of the ARDE Project. Brussels: EUA.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2006, May 10). Europe needs modernised universities. IP/06/592, Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2011). Report of Mapping Exercise on Doctoral Training in Europe. Towards a Common Approach. Brussels: EU.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnish Ministry of Education. (1997). Tutkijakoulut Suomessa 1995–1998. Tutkijakouluissa Annettavan Opetuksen ja Ohjauksen Laadun Arviointi [Doctoral Schools in Finland 1995–1998]. Opetusministeriö, Koulutus- ja tiedepolitiikan osasto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, P. (2011). What is a PhD Really Worth? Nature, 472, 381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994). The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, R., Balatti, J., Turner, P., & Whitehouse, H. (2004). The Generic Skills Debate in Research Higher Degrees. Higher Education Research and Development, 23(3), 375–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodchild, L., & Miller, M. M. (1997). The American Doctorate and Dissertation: Six Developmental Stages. New Directions for Higher Education, 25(3), 17–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, A. R. (1970). From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720. London: Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halsey, A. H. (1992). The Decline of Donnish Dominion the British Academic Profession in the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henkel, M. (2005). Academic Identity and Autonomy in a Changing Policy Environment. Higher Education, 49(1–2), 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Høstaker, R. (2006). Policy Change and the Academic Profession. In M. Kogan, M. Bauer, I. Bleiklie, & M. Henkel (Eds.), Transforming Higher Education: A Comparative Study. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/2/2005/EN/2-2005-749-EN-1-0.Pdf

  • http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/robertsreview_introch1.pdf

  • http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/2018_Paris/77/1/EHEAParis2018_Communique_final_952771.pdf

  • https://www.ndm.ox.ac.uk/_asset/file/metcalfe-report.pdf

  • Huisman, J., & Naidoo, R. (2006). The Professional Doctorate: From Anglo-Saxon to European Challenges. Higher Education Management Policy, 18(2), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez-Ramírez, M. (2017). Los nuevos estudios de doctorado en España: avances y retos para su convergencia con Europa. Revista iberoamericana de educación superior, 8(21), 123–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kehm, B. M. (2006). Doctoral Education in Europe and North America: A Comparative Analysis. In U. Teichler (Ed.), The Formative Years of Scholars (pp. 67–78). London: Portland Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, C. (1982). The Uses of the University (3rd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LERU (League of European Research Universities). (2010). Doctoral Degrees Beyond 2010: Training Talented Researchers for Society. Leuven: LERU.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leuven Communiqué. (2009, April 28–29). The Bologna Process 2020—The European Higher Education Area in the new decade. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, Leuven and Louvain-la-Neuve. Retrieved from http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/2009_Leuven_Louvain-la-Neuve/06/1/Leuven_Louvain-la-Neuve_Communique_April_2009_595061.pdf

  • London Communiqué. (2007, May 17–18). Towards the European Higher Education Area: Responding to Challenges in a Globalised World. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, London. Retrieved from http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/2007_London/69/7/2007_London_Communique_English_588697.pdf

  • Loxley, A., & Seery, A. (2012). The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Ireland from the Student Perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 37(1), 3–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe, J., Thompson, Q., & Green, H. (2002). Improving Standards in Postgraduate Research Degree Programmes. Report to the Higher Education Funding Councils of England, Scotland and Wales.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintzberg, H. (1979). The Structuring of Organizations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mokyr, J. (2002, September 4–5). The Knowledge Society: Theoretical and Historical Underpinnings. Paper Presented at Ad Hoc Expert Group on Knowledge Systems, United Nations, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mourier, A. (1856). Notice sur le doctorat ès sciences, suivie du catalogue des thèses admise par les Facultés des Sciences depuis 1810. Paris: Librairie Delalain.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musselin, C. (2011). The Academic Workplace. What We Already Know and What We Still Don’t Know and What We Would Like to Know. In C. Calhoun & D. Rhoten (Eds.), Knowledge Matters: The Public Mission of the Research University (pp. 423–456). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neave, G. (2004). Higher Education Policy as Orthodoxy: Being One Tale of Doxological Drift, Political Intention and Changing Circumstances. In P. Teixeira, B. Jongbloed, D. Dill, & A. Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher Education: Rhetoric or Reality? (pp. 127–160). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Nerad, M. (1967). Introduction. In M. Nerad, J. Raymond, D. S. Miller, & P. G. Altbach (Eds.), Graduation Education in the United States (pp. iv–xi). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nettles, M. T., & Millet, C. C. (2006). Three Magic Words: Getting to Ph.D. Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyhagen, G., & Baschung, L. (2013). New Organisational Structures and the Transformation of Academic Work. Higher Education, 66(4), 409–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2012). Transferable Skills Training for Researchers: Supporting Career Development and Research. Paris: OECD.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2014). Education at a Glance 2014: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2017). Education at a Glance 2017: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Paradeise, C., Reale, E., Bleiklie, I., & Ferlie, E. (2009). University Governance, Western European Comparative Perspectives. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Paris Communiqué. (2018, May 24–25). Empowering Europe’s Youth. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. (2005). New Variant PhD: The Changing Nature of the Doctorate in the UK. Journal of Higher Education and Management, 27(2), 189–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. (1996). The Scientific Revolutions and the Universities. In H. De Ridder-Simoens (Ed.), A History of the University in Europe (Vol. 2, pp. 531–563). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pusztai, G., & Szabó, P. C. (2008). The Bologna Process as a Trojan Horse: Restructuring Higher Education in Hungary. European Education, 40(2), 85–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Readings, B. (1996). The University in Ruins. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, G. (2002). Set for Success. The Supply of People with Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Skills. London: HM Treasury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rüegg, W. (2011). Themes. In W. Rüegg (Ed.), A History of the University in Europe (Vol. 4, pp. 3–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santiago, R., & Carvalho, T. (2012). Managerialism Rhetorics in Portuguese higher Education. Minerva, 50(4), 511–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santiago, R., Carvalho, T., & Cardoso, S. (2015). Portuguese Academics Perceptions on Higher Education Institutions Governance and Management: A Generational Perspective. Special Issue—Generational Change and Academic Work of Studies in Higher Education, 40(8), 1471–1484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schleiermacher, F. (1808). Gelegentliche Gedanken über Universitäten im deutscen Sinn. Nebst einem Anhang über eine neu zu errichtende. 2010 Berlin: Nabu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shattock, M. (2001). The Academic Profession in Britain: A Study in the Failure to Adapt to Change. Higher Education, 41(1–2), 27–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, R. (1983). How the PhD Came to Britain: A Century of Struggle for Postgraduate Education. Guilford: Society for Research into Higher Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sin, C., & Neave, G. (2014). Employability Deconstructed: Perceptions of Bologna Stakeholders. Studies in Higher Education, 41(8), 1447–1462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slaughter, S., & Rhoades, G. (2004). Academic Capitalism and the New Economy. Markets, State and Higher Education. Baltimore, NJ: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. (1776). An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 2010 edition, M. Biernat (Ed.). Krakow: Political Economy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Streckeisen, P. (2009). Knowledge Society—Or Contemporary Capitalism’s Fanciest Dress. Analyse & Kritik, 31(1), 181–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teichler, U. (2015). Diversity and Diversification of Higher Education: Trends, Challenges and Policies. Educational Studies, 1, 14–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verger, R. (1992). Teachers. In H. De Ridder-Simoens (Ed.), A History of the University in Europe (Vol. 1, pp. 144–169). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wao, H. O., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2011). A Mixed Research Investigation of Factors Related to Time to the Doctorate in Education. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 6, 115–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weick, K. F. (1976). Educational Organizations as Loosely Coupled Systems. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westfall, R. S. (1980). Isaac Newton in Cambridge: the Restoration University and Scientific Creativity. In P. Zagorin (Ed.), Culture and Politics from Puritanism to Enlightenment (pp. 135–164). Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. M. F. (1817). Alma Mater; Or, Seven Years at the University of Cambridge. By a Trinity Man (Vol. 2). London: Black, Young, and Young Tavistock-Street.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, J. (1998). The Lengthening Shadow of One Man: The Public Intellectual and the Founding of Universities. Higher Education Review, 30(2), 29–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ylijoki, O. H., & Ursin, J. (2013). The Construction of Academic Identity in the Changes of Finnish Higher Education. Studies in Higher Education, 38(8), 1135–1149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziman, J. M. (1994). Prometheus Bound: Science in a Dynamic Steady State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ziman, J. (1998). Why Must Scientists Become More Ethically Sensitive Than They Used To Be? Science, 282(5395), 1813–1814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziman, J. (2000). Are Debatable Scientific Questions Debatable? Social Epistemology, 14(2-3), 187–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Agency for Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES), Lisbon, Portugal

    Alberto Amaral

  2. Centre for Research in Higher Education Policies (CIPES), Matosinhos, Portugal

    Alberto Amaral & Teresa Carvalho

  3. Department of Social, Political and Territorial Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

    Teresa Carvalho

Authors
  1. Alberto Amaral
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Teresa Carvalho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alberto Amaral .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Agency for Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES), Lisbon, Portugal

    Sónia Cardoso , Orlanda Tavares  & Cristina Sin ,  & 

  2. Centre for Research in Higher Education Policies (CIPES), Matosinhos, Portugal

    Sónia Cardoso , Orlanda Tavares , Cristina Sin  & Teresa Carvalho , ,  & 

  3. Department of Social, Political and Territorial Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

    Teresa Carvalho

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Amaral, A., Carvalho, T. (2020). From the Medieval Disputation to the Graduate School. In: Cardoso, S., Tavares, O., Sin, C., Carvalho, T. (eds) Structural and Institutional Transformations in Doctoral Education. Issues in Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38046-5_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38046-5_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-38045-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-38046-5

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation