Abstract
In order to understand the German education system (actually consisting of multiple systems due to different regulations among the 16 federal states), it is necessary to look back to its origins and its historical development as well as to the socio-political contexts that explain today’s features. This includes, for instance, the early segregation after year four into different schools in the three-track school system that has its roots in the three class society of the 19th century or the segregation of students with special needs into ‘special schools’ outside the regular system (features which are now changing). International comparative studies on school performance (e.g., PISA) indicated that students from poor families and/or families with migration experiences were considerably disadvantaged by the education system. Less discussed and less visible aspects of a person can also lead to disadvantages in school, for which LGTBIQ* students are one example. Unequal chances lead to educational poverty, which has both negative consequences on the individual (psychologically and economically) and the societal level. The chapter will conclude with food for thought on how to tackle educational poverty and systematic disadvantage in the German education system for certain groups and individuals.
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Notes
- 1.
In this text, we use the acronym LGBTIQ* to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans*, intersex, and questioning persons.
- 2.
This term originates from educational research and describes the enormous expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors of the education system (for more details see: Geißler, 2014, pp. 335–345).
- 3.
The reason why the following paragraphs focus on the development of the West German school system is that, due to historic events, West Germany’s development shaped today’s education system more than that of East Germany.
- 4.
The Länder Saxony and Thuringia introduced a two-tracked system. Other Länder followed later on.
- 5.
In the proper sense, this is true for the following Länder: Baden-Wurttemberg, Bavaria, Bremen, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Schleswig-Holstein, Saxony, and Thuringia. In other Länder, learning aids are provided only in certain cases, e.g., for families with a low income or a certain minimum number of children.
- 6.
Some Länder charge fees for students who already have a degree and register for a second, and some charge fees for students who take significantly more time to complete their degree than their peers.
- 7.
Waldorf/Rudolf Steiner Schools were introduced as comprehensive schools in the beginning of the 20th century by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner. They base their education on Steiner’s anthroposophical concepts. In contrast to regular schools, characteristics of the Waldorf Schools are, e.g., holistic education, giving high importance not only to academic knowledge and skills, but also to the fields of arts and social interactions; class teachers remain with the same class for years (1st through 8th grade); no marks are given in primary and lower secondary education. In comparison to other progressive education concepts, classes are teacher-centered (Tenorth & Tippelt, 2012; Collins & O’Brien, 2011).
- 8.
Montessori schools were introduced as comprehensive schools in the beginning of the 20th century by the Italian Maria Montessori. The pedagogical concept is explicitly child-centered. Pupils are supposed to discover learning subjects by themselves according to their interests. The teacher’s role is to observe the pupils in these processes in order to provide ideal learning environments with appropriate materials and to facilitate learning. Essential features of Montessori schools are, e.g., mixed age groups, pupils’ choice of activity (within a range of options), and the use of special, aesthetic learning material developed by Montessori and colleagues, which is within reach of the children and appropriate in size (Association Montessori Internationale-USA, 2014; Tenorth & Tippelt, 2012).
- 9.
If, in addition to general education schools, vocational schools are considered, the proportion is slightly higher (Döberl, 2017).
- 10.
In Bavaria, Brandenburg, Saxony, and Thuringia pupils need to pass entrance examinations or successfully complete trial classes in order to attend a school type that is on a higher level than the recommended one.
- 11.
In Berlin and Brandenburg at the age of 12.
- 12.
Half of the Länder offer—besides Gymnasium—only one other school type. In some of these Länder, pupils have the possibility to obtain the Abitur in this school type (Berlin, Bremen, Hamburg, Saarland, Schleswig-Holstein), in others they do not (Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt). Lower Saxony offers the broadest variety of school types: Besides the still existing traditional school types, Gymnasium, Realschule, and Hauptschule, an intermediate school was created, which unites Realschule and Hauptschule, and also cooperative and integrative comprehensive schools, offering all kinds of school-leaving certificates.
- 13.
The number of years differ between the Länder and within the Länder, between school types. Obtaining the Abitur in comprehensive schools often takes one year longer than at the Gymnasium.
- 14.
Some authors mention the following reasons as possible explanation for the increase in diagnoses: Changed criteria and praxis of assignment of a diagnosis, changed motivation of teachers to initiate a testing process, or because higher rates of pupils with special needs might lead to increased funding of the school by the state (e.g., Schuck & Rauer, 2014).
- 15.
PISA = Programme for International Student Assessment, carried out every three years by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
- 16.
Ecarius et al. (2011) pointed out the strong dependence of school success on language ability: Those young migrants who enter Germany between the ages of 12 and 17 are the lowest performers at school. Language socialization acts as a decisive stress factor for this group (see also Morris-Lange & Schneider in this volume).
- 17.
In meritocracy-oriented societies, the access to education and/or employment is organized through meritocratic principles, such as the performance principle. Ability, talent, and intelligence as well as hard work are considered to be a legitimate mechanism for the distribution of goods, income, and social status (Becker & Hadjar, 2017).
- 18.
This aspect of the problem will be addressed in more detail further below.
- 19.
According to the respective test subject, PISA tests measure one to six (digital reading five) competency levels: “PISA scores can be located along specific scales developed for each subject area, designed to show the general competencies tested by PISA. These scales are divided into levels that represent groups of PISA test questions, beginning at Level 1 with questions that require only the most basic skills to complete and increasing in difficulty with each level. Once a student’s test has been corrected, his or her score in reading, mathematics and science (plus collaborative problem solving in PISA 2015) can be located on the appropriate scale” (OECD, 2018a, 2018b).
- 20.
IGLU = International Primary School Reading Literacy Study.
- 21.
In Berlin und Brandenburg secondary schools usually start with grade 7. In other Länder, grade 5 or 5 and 6 are probationary years.
- 22.
The asterisk shows that gender and sexual identities are more diverse than the list suggests.
- 23.
Although the mentioned data is not (only) from Germany, there is no reason to assume that these numbers differ significantly in Germany.
- 24.
Individuals who identify with the gender they were assigned at birth are cisgender(ed). A cisgender(ed) woman (man) was an assigned female (male) at birth and this corresponds with her (his) gender identity (Klocke, Salden, & Watzlawik, 2020).
- 25.
We use queer as an umbrella term for people who are not heterosexual or are not cisgender.
- 26.
Bourdieu and Beck’s approaches are often regarded as contradictory (Berger & Hitzler, 2010).
- 27.
Which should be possible when considering the excellent PISA results from countries like Finland or Sweden.
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Salden, S., Hertlein, J. (2020). Is It Fair? The German Education System and Its Stumbling Blocks for Adolescents. In: Watzlawik, M., Burkholder, A. (eds) Educating Adolescents Around the Globe. Cultural Psychology of Education, vol 11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37900-1_7
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