Abstract
In this chapter, I describe sociocultural underpinnings of learning. Learning, I argue, is central to the development of the self and guided by socioculturally shared ideas about what it means to be a good person. Students are confronted with fundamental questions, such as ‘How can I manage to become an independent agent in my own life, while, at the same time, be an interdependent part of stable, social relationships?’ I review the consequences of an independent versus an interdependent construal of the self for learning beliefs structured along four questions: (1) What are subjectively important goals of learning; (2) What processes does learning involve; (3) What affective responses are triggered by learning, and (4) What are the characteristics of the ideal learner and teacher? I will then use this framework to discuss some of the contributions collected in this volume.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Askell-Williams, H., & Lawson, M. J. (2005). Students’ knowledge about the value of discussions for teaching and learning. Social Psychology of Education, 8, 83–115.
Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.). (1999). The self in social psychology. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press (Taylor & Francis).
Burkholder, K. (this volume). Education for street-connected children in Kenya: Marginalization, challenges, and recommendations.
Chan, K., & Elliot, R. (2002). Exploratory study of Hong Kong teacher education students’ epistemological beliefs: Cultural perspectives and implications on beliefs research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 392–414.
Cheng, K., & Wong, K. (1996). School effectiveness in East Asia: Concepts, origins and implications. Journal of Educational Administration, 34, 32–49.
Cousins, S. D. (1989). Culture and Selfhood in Japan and the USA. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 124–131.
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construal and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5–37.
Doddington, C. (2007). Critical thinking as a source of respect for persons: A critique. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 39, 449–459.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). On memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Teachers College.
Eckensberger, L. H., & Zimba, R. F. (1997). The development of moral judgment. In J. W. Berry, P. R. Dasen, & T. S. Saraswathi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Basic processes and human development (pp. 299–338). Needham Heights, MA, US: Allyn & Bacon.
Facione, P. A. (2009). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Retrieved February 26, 2019, from http://insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2009.pdf.
Falk, C. F., & Heine, S. J. (2015). What is implicit self-esteem, and does it vary across cultures? Personality and Social Psychological Review, 19, 177–198.
Fu, A. S., & Markus, H. R. (2014). My mother and me: Why tiger mothers motivate Asian Americans but not European Americans. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 739–749.
Garrison, D. R. (1991). Critical thinking in adult education: A conceptual model for developing critical thinking in adult learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 10, 287–303.
Haimovitz, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2017). The origins of childrens’ growth and fixed mindset: New research and a new proposal. Child Development, 88, 1849–1859.
Hau, K. T., & Salili, F. (1991). Structure and semantic differential placement of specific causes: Academic causal attributions by Chinese students in Hong Kong. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 175–193.
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Ide, E., Leung, C., Kitayama, S., Takata, T., et al. (2001). Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599–615.
Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (2006). Changing practices in Chinese cultures of learning. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 19, 5–20.
Joshi, P. (this volume). India’s demographic dividend: Addressing the challenge of poverty in educating adolescents.
Kagitcibasi, C. (1997). Individualism and collectivism. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behavior and applications (2nd ed., pp. 1–50). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Kim, H. S. (2002). We talk, therefore we think? A cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 828–842.
Kim, H. S. (2008). Culture and the cognitive and neuroendocrine responses to speech. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 32–47.
Kim, H. S., & Drolet, A. (2003). Choice and self-expression: A cultural analysis of variety-seeking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 373–382.
Kühnen, U., Hannover, B., Pöhlmann, C., & Roeder, U. R. (2013). How self-construal affects dispositionalism in attributions. Social Cognition, 31, 237–259.
Kühnen, U., & Oyserman, D. (2002). Thinking about the self influences thinking in general: Procedural consequences of self-construal activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 492–499.
Kühnen, U., & Van Egmond, M. C. (2018). Learning—A cultural construct. In J. Proust & M. Fortier (Eds.), Metacognitive diversity: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 245–264). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Li, J. (2003). U.S. and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 258–267.
Li, J. (2005). Mind or virtue: Western and Chinese beliefs about learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 190–194.
Li, J. (2016). Humility in learning: A Confucian perspective. Special Issue on developing virtue: Empirically-informed perspectives from East and West. Journal of Moral Education, 45, 147–165.
Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. (2013). Clash!: 8 cultural conflicts that make us who we are. New York: Hudson Street Press.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2004). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. In V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (Eds.), Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on the self: Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 49, pp. 1–57). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Culture and self: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430.
Miyamoto, Y., & Kitayama, S. (2003). Cultural variation in correspondence bias: The critical role of attitude diagnosticity of socially constrained behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1239–1248.
Morris-Lange, S., & Schneider, T. (this volume). Dead end schools? Refugee teenagers and school segregation in Germany.
Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it: Why schools and cultures matter. New York: Norton.
Oishi, S., & Graham, J. (2010). Social ecology: Lost and found in psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 356–377.
Owe, E., Vignoles, V. L., Becker, M., Brown, R., Smith, P. B., Lee, S. W. S., … Jalal, B. (2013). Contextualism as an Important Facet of Individualism-Collectivism: Personhood Beliefs across 37 National Groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44 (1), 24–45.
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741–754.
Rattan, A., Savani, K., Naidu, N. V. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Can everyone become highly intelligent? Cultural differences in and societal consequences of beliefs about the universal potential for intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 787–803.
Rhee, E., Uleman, J. S., Lee, H. K., & Roman, R. J. (1995). Spontaneous self-descriptions and ethnic identities in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 142–152.
Rosenthal, D. A., & Feldman, S. S. (1991). The influence of perceived family and personal factors on self-reported school performance of Chinese and Western high school students. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1, 135–154.
Savani, K., Markus, H. R., Naidu, N. V. R., Kumar, S., & Berlia, V. (2010). What counts as a choice? U.S. Americans are more likely than Indians to construe actions as choices. Psychological Science, 21, 391–398.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1178–1197.
Teles Marques, A., & Lyra, M. C. D. P. (this volume). Teaching young offenders in Brazil.
Tweed, R. G., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Learning considered within a cultural context: Confucian and Socratic approaches. American Psychologist, 57, 89–99.
Van Egmond, M. C., Kühnen, U., & Li, J. (2013). The meaning of learning, a matter of culture? Learning, Culture, and Social Interaction, 2, 208–216.
Zhu, Y., Zhang, L., Fan, J., & Hand, S. (2007). Neural basis of cultural influence on self-representation. NeuroImage, 34, 1310–1316.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kühnen, U. (2020). What Is There to Be Learned and How? Learning Through the Lens of the Self. In: Watzlawik, M., Burkholder, A. (eds) Educating Adolescents Around the Globe. Cultural Psychology of Education, vol 11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37900-1_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37900-1_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-37899-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-37900-1
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)