Abstract
The Canadian Armed Forces has signaled an important shift in how the institution seeks to address diversity within, which has resulted in amendments to professional military education curricula with increased emphasis on developing cultural competencies. Building towards a heutagogic approach, this chapter is presented in three sections. Section “Cultural and institutional barriers to cultural competence: The Canadian case” presents the premise that military professionals can develop cultural competence by critically reflecting upon their own institutional and Canadian cultures. Section “Learning diversity in the classroom: a prerequisite for cultural competence” provides examples of academic work which articulates why the eroding of “us/them” binaries helps people to understand each other better. The final section presents the teaching philosophies and methods needed for this type of skill development. We draw on a teaching philosophy which highlights that educators and learners possess positionality and posit that educators and learners can collectively make visible, and confront, tacit biases, stereotypes, and narrow adversarial worldviews. Applications of this philosophy helps to lay the foundation for heutagogy, a teaching method focused on collaboration, critical self-reflection, and student-driven learning: components which we esteem as beneficial to the development of cultural competence in military members.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Portions of this chapter draw on both academic research conducted as part of a doctoral programme and professional research conducted as instructors at Canadian Forces College. Canadian Forces College is a Professional Military Education institute of the Canadian Armed Forces. The College educates mid to senior level military professionals in its Joint Command and Staff Programme, as well as senior military and civilian professionals in its National Security Programme. Some of the conclusions we draw and evidence we present come from our work with and study of members from the former programme.
- 2.
As of January 2018, women represented 15.3% of the total strength of the Canadian Armed Forces, of which 14.9% are employed in the Regular Force, while 16.3% are members of the Primary Reserve. Representation of women in the Combat Arms has been slow to increase since women were permitted to join, growing from less than 1% in 1989–1990 to 4.3% as of February 2018. National Defence and the Canadian Armed Forces, 2018, Women in the Canadian Armed Forces, Backgrounder. Retrieved from http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/news/article.page?doc=women-in-the-canadian-armed-forces/izkjqzeu
- 3.
The current goal is 25% of the total Force by 2020. House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Response to Recommendations 1–8 of Report 5, Canadian Armed Forces Recruitment and Retention, of the Fall 2016 Reports of the Auditor General of Canada, 30 April 2018, p. 17, 3. The idea of the low threshold is referenced from Whitworth (2004).
- 4.
The Department of National Defence has committed to achieving 3.5% representation of Indigenous Peoples and 11.8% visible minorities by 2020. House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Response to Recommendations 1–8 of Report 5, Canadian Armed Forces Recruitment and Retention, of the Fall 2016 Reports of the Auditor General of Canada, 30 April 2018, p. 17.
- 5.
For current debates about the creation of a new diversity strategy for the Canadian Armed Forces and the impetus to create professional military education curricula on diversity, see Parliament of Canada, House of Commons, “Diversity within the Canadian Armed Forces,” Standing Committee on National Defence, 18 October 2018–11 April 2019.
- 6.
While power and the distribution of wealth and privilege transcends institutions and borders, for the purposes of developing cultural competence in Canadian military members, we are interested in looking at the social organization of people within the Canadian military and the territory of Canada, noting that the people who live and move through the Canadian state are not all citizens, and do not all share the same, nor equal, rights, advantages, and privileges.
- 7.
As a recent example, see “Ex-member says military sexual harassment complaints process needs overhaul” by Charlie Pinkerton, iPolitics, 2 May 2019, accessible at: https://ipolitics.ca/2019/05/09/ex-member-says-military-sexual-harassment-complaints-process-needs-overhaul/
References
Ahmed, S. (2007). The language of diversity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(2), 235–256.
Ashe, F. (2012). Gendering war and peace: Militarized masculinities in Northern Ireland. Men and Masculinities, 15(3), 230–248.
Ashton, J., & Newman, L. (2006). An unfinished symphony: 21st century teacher education using knowledge creating heutagogies. BJET, 37, 825–840.
Bauman, Z. (1991). Modernity and ambivalence. Cambridge, MA: Polity Press.
Bauman, Z. (2003). From bystander to actor. Journal of Human Rights, 2(2), 137–151.
Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1), 56–71.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). Principles for reflecting on the curriculum. The Curriculum Journal, 1(3), 307–314.
Bourdieu, P. & Nice, R. (2004). Science of science and reflexivity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Brown, V. (2017). “I was furious that whole roto”: Gender dynamics and hidden learning at the Canadian Forces College. Report on gender dynamics and hidden learning in Institutional Policy Studies Stream, Joint Command and Staff Programme 43, report submitted to Canadian Forces College, Toronto.
Brown, V. (2018). Report on the integration of gender and cultural perspectives and an inclusive learning environment in the Joint Command and Staff Programme. report submitted to Canadian Forces College, Toronto.
Brown, A., Cervero, R., & Johnson-Bailey, J. (2000). Making the invisible visible: Race, gender, and teaching in adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 50(4), 273–288.
Cali, B., Coleman, J., & Campbell, C. (2013). Stranger danger? Women’s self-protection intent and the continuing stigma of online dating. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 16(12), 853–857.
Canadian Armed Forces. (2002). Canadian forces employment equity regulations (SOR/2002–421).
Canning, N. (2010). Playing with heutagogy: Exploring strategies to empower mature learners in higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34(1), 59–71.
Carreiras, H. (2006). Gender and the military: Women in the armed forces of Western democracies. New York: Routledge.
Chief of Defence Staff. (2009). Duty with honour: The profession of arms in Canada (2nd ed.). Kingston: Canadian Forces Leadership Institute.
Chief of Defence Staff. (2016). Canadian Armed Forces diversity strategy. Ottawa: Directorate of Human Rights and Diversity.
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.
Davis, K. (2007). Women and leadership in the Canadian Forces: Perspectives and experience. Winnipeg: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Davis, K., & Wright, J. (2009). Culture and cultural intelligence. In K. Davis (Ed.), Cultural intelligence and leadership: An introduction for Canadian forces leaders (pp. 9–25). Kingston: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Dean, J. (1995). Reflective solidarity. Constellations, 2(1), 114–140.
Deschamps, M. (2015). External review into sexual misconduct and sexual harassment in the Canadian Armed Forces. National Defence and the Canadian Forces.
Duncanson, C., & Woodward, R. (2016). Regendering the military: Theorizing women’s military participation. Security Dialogue, 47(1), 3–21.
Eichler, M. (2012). Militarizing men: Gender, conscription, and war in Post-Soviet Russia. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Febbraro, A. (2007). Gender and leadership in the Canadian forces combat arms: Perspectives of women leaders. In K. D. Davis (Ed.), Women and leadership in the Canadian forces: Perspectives and experience (pp. 93–138). Kingston/Ontario: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
George, T. (2018, October 19–21). Troubling inclusion: Making the case for intersectionality in the Canadian Armed Forces. In paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society – Canada; Ottawa, Ontario.
Ginneken, J. V. (2013). Stranger danger and the epidemic of fear: On the psychology of recent Western reactions to others. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.
Government of Canada. (2017). Canada’s National Action Plan 2017-2022 - for the implementation of the UN security council resolutions on women. In Peace and security. Ottawa, ON: Global Affairs Canada.
Government of Canada (2018). House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, Response to Recommendations 1–8 of Report 5, Canadian Armed Forces Recruitment and Retention, of the Fall 2016 Reports of the Auditor General of Canada, 30 April 2018, pgs. 17, p.6.
Guo, S., & Wong, L. (2015). Revisiting multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, policies and debates. Rotterdam: Sense Publishing.
Harries-Jenkins, G. (1990). The concept of military professionalism. Defense Analysis, 6(2), 117–130.
Hase, S. (2009). Heutagogy and e-learning in the workplace: Some challenges and opportunities. Impact: Journal of Applied Research in Workplace E-Learning, 1(1), 43–52.
Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2001). Moving from andragogy to heutagogy: Implications for vocational education and training. In Proceedings of Research to Reality: Putting VET Research to Work: Australian Vocational Education and Training Research Association (AVETRA), Adelaide, SA, 28–30 March, AVETRA, Crows Nest, NSW.
Higate, P. (2007). Peacekeepers, masculinities, and sexual exploitation. Men and Masculinities, 10(1), 99–119.
Huntington, S. P. (1957). The soldier and the state: The theory and politics of civil-military relations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Irwin, A. L. (2002). The social organization of soldiering: A Canadian infantry company in the field. Doctoral dissertation, University of Manchester.
Irwin, A. (2011). Diversity in the Canadian forces: Lessons from Afghanistan. In C. Leuprecht (Ed.), Defending democracy and securing diversity (pp. 156–167). Abingdon: Routledge.
Janowitz, M. (1960). The professional soldier. Glencoe: The Free Press.
Kenway, J., & McLeod, J. (2004). Bourdieu’s reflexive sociology and ‘spaces of points of view’: Whose reflexivity, which perspective? British Journal of Sociology of Education, 25(4), 525–544.
Kovitz, M. (2000). The enemy within: Female soldiers in the Canadian forces. Canadian Woman Studies, 19(4), 36–41.
Lane, A. (2017). Special men: The gendered militarization of the Canadian Armed Forces. International Journal, 72(4), 463–483.
Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning theories, A to Z. Westport: Greenwood.
Leuprecht, C. (Ed.). (2011). Defending democracy and securing diversity. Abingdon: Routledge.
MacLaurin, K. (2006). Organizational values and cultural diversity in the Canadian forces: The case of Aboriginal peoples. In F. Pinch, A. MacIntyre, P. Browne, & A. Okros (Eds.), Challenge and change in the military: Gender and diversity issues (pp. 146–170). Kingston: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Madsen, C. (2000). Another kind of justice: Canadian military law from confederation to Somalia. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
Mitra, R., Faulkner, G. E., Buliung, R. N., & Stone, M. R. (2014). Do parental perceptions of the neighbourhood environment influence children's independent mobility? Evidence from Toronto, Canada. Urban Studies, 51(16), 3401–3419.
Mohanty, C. (2003). Feminism without borders-decolonizing theory: Practicing solidarity. Durham: Duke University Press.
Nolan, J., Rayes-Goldie, K., & McBride, M. (2011). The stranger danger: Exploring surveillance, autonomy, and privacy in children’s use of social media. Canadian Children, 36(2), 24–31.
Office of the Auditor General. (2016). Canadian Armed Forces recruitment and retention—National Defence (report five). Ottawa, ON: Office of the Auditor General for Canada.
Okros, A., & Scott, D. (2015). Gender identity in the Canadian forces: A review of possible impacts on operational effectiveness. Armed Forces and Society, 41(2), 243–256.
Parpart, J., & Partridge, K. (2014). Soldiering on: Pushing militarized masculinities into new territories. In M. Evans, C. Hemmings, M. Henry, H. Johnstone, S. Madhok, A. Plomien, & S. Wearing (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of feminist theory (pp. 550–565). Thousand Oaks/London: SAGE.
Pierson, R. R. (1983). Canadian women and the Second World War. Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association.
Pinkerton, C. (2019, May 9). Ex-member says military sexual harassment complaints process needs overhaul. Retrieved October 23, 2019, from IPolitics website: https://ipolitics.ca/2019/05/09/ex-member-says-military-sexual-harassment-complaints-process-needs-overhaul/
Razack, R. (2004). Dark threats and white knights: The Somalia affair, peacekeeping, and the new imperialism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Reiffenstein, A. (2007). Gender integration as asymmetric environment. In K. D. Davis (Ed.), Women and leadership in the Canadian forces: Perspectives and experience. Kingston: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Reitz, J. G. (2009). Multiculturalism and social cohesion: Potentials and challenges of diversity. Dordrecht: Springer.
Samaroo, S. (2012). An investigation into the practicality and applicability of the pedandragogic framework: A case study of faculty attitude toward a learner-centered model of teaching and learning at a university in the southern United States. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Taber, N. (2009). The profession of arms: Ideological codes and dominant narratives of gender in the Canadian military. Atlantis, 34(1), 27–36.
Taber, N. (2015). Gendered militarism in Canada: Learning conformity and resistance. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press.
Thomson, K., & Jones, J. (2016). Colonials in camouflage: Metonymy, mimicry and the reproduction of the colonial order in the age of diversity. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 35, 58–75.
Touraine, A. (1998). Can we live together, equal and different? European Journal of Social Theory, 1(2), 165–178.
Vasta, E. (2010). The controllability of difference: Social cohesion and the new politics of solidarity. Ethnicities, 10(4), 503–521.
Wax, N. (2016). Parenting styles-the concept of ‘stranger danger’ and instilling child safety skills (Order no. 10112469). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Whitworth, S. (2004). Men, militarism and UN peacekeeping. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Whitworth, S. (2005). Militarized masculinities and the politics of peacekeeping: The Canadian case. In K. Booth (Ed.), Critical security studies in world politics (pp. 89–106). Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Winslow, D., & Dunn, J. (2002). Women in the Canadian forces: Between legal and social integration. Current Sociology, 50(5), 641–667.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Brown, V., Okros, A. (2020). Unlearning “Stranger Danger”: Developing Cultural Competence in Canadian Military Professionals Through Collective Learning and Self-Reflection. In: Enstad, K., Holmes-Eber, P. (eds) Warriors or Peacekeepers?. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36766-4_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36766-4_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-36765-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-36766-4
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)