Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Oral Vaccine Delivery: The Coming Age of Particulate Vaccines to Elicit Mucosal Immunity

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Mucosal Delivery of Drugs and Biologics in Nanoparticles

Part of the book series: AAPS Advances in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Series ((AAPS,volume 41))

Abstract

With the evolution of different challenging diseases, there is an urgent need of vaccine development against them to save millions of lives around the world. Particlulate delivery system plays an important role by acting as self-adjuvant in form of particles and thus assisting the immunogenicity of vaccines. Particulate vaccines have shown to have improved uptake by antigen presenting cells as compared to the soluble antigen. Traditional injectable vaccines are generally poor inducers of mucosal immunity and are therefore less effective against infections at the mucosal site. Mucosal vaccines have been reported to provide additional secretory antibody mediated protection at the mucosal site of entry of the pathogen. In this chapter, we discuss the benefits of particulate drug delivery systems for oral delivery, the role of immune system in the gut, and a case study ofa novel particulate vaccine formulated into oral dissolving film for immunization via the buccal route. Key formulation components, process parameters and their biophysical characterizations have been discussed as well.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

APCs:

Antigen-Presenting Cells

BBB:

Blood-Brain Barrier

BSA:

Bovine Serum Albumin

DCs:

Dendritic Cells

EPR:

Enhanced Permeability and Retention

GALT:

Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue

IFNϒ:

Interferon Gamma

IL:

Interleukin

MHC:

Major Histocompatibility Complex

MLNs:

Mesenteric Lymph Nodes

MALT:

Mucosal Associate Lymphoid Tissues

MIS:

Mucosal Immune System

NALT:

Nasopharynx-Associated Lymphoid Tissue

ODF:

Oral Dissolving Film

PPs:

Peyer’s Patches

PLGA:

Poly(lLactic-cCo-gGlycolic aAcid)

RVG:

Rabies Virus Glycoprotein

TLRs:

Toll-Like Receptors

Th1:

Type 1 Helper T Cells

Th2:

Type 2 Helper T Cells

VLPs:

Virus-Like Particles

References

  1. De Temmerman M-L, Rejman J, Demeester J, Irvine DJ, Gander B, De Smedt SC. Particulate vaccines: on the quest for optimal delivery and immune response. Drug Discov Today. 2011 Jul 1;16(13):569–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Oberg AL, Kennedy RB, Li P, Ovsyannikova IG, Poland GA. Systems biology approaches to new vaccine development. Curr Opin Immunol. 2011 Jun;23(3):436–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Rappuoli R, Mandl CW, Black S, De Gregorio E. Vaccines for the twenty-first century society. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011 04;11(12):865–872.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Zhao L, Seth A, Wibowo N, Zhao C-X, Mitter N, Yu C, et al. Nanoparticle vaccines. Vaccine. 2014 Jan 9;32(3):327–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bramwell VW, Perrie Y. The rational design of vaccines. Drug Discov Today. 2005 Nov 15;10(22):1527–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Hubbell JA, Thomas SN, Swartz MA. Materials engineering for immunomodulation. Nature. 2009 Nov 26;462(7272):449–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Storni T, Kündig TM, Senti G, Johansen P. Immunity in response to particulate antigen-delivery systems. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005 Jan 10;57(3):333–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Scheerlinck J-PY, Greenwood DLV. Particulate delivery systems for animal vaccines. Methods. 2006 Sep 1;40(1):118–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Bachmann MF, Jennings GT. Vaccine delivery: a matter of size, geometry, kinetics and molecular patterns. Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 Nov;10(11):787–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Gregory AE, Titball R, Williamson D. Vaccine delivery using nanoparticles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2013;3:13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Jahraus A, Storrie B, Griffiths G, Desjardins M. Evidence for retrograde traffic between terminal lysosomes and the prelysosomal/late endosome compartment. J Cell Sci. 1994 Jan;107(Pt 1):145–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Pitt A, Mayorga LS, Stahl PD, Schwartz AL. Alterations in the protein composition of maturing phagosomes. J Clin Invest. 1992 Nov;90(5):1978–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Garin J, Diez R, Kieffer S, Dermine JF, Duclos S, Gagnon E, et al. The phagosome proteome: insight into phagosome functions. J Cell Biol. 2001 Jan 8;152(1):165–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Tacken PJ, Torensma R, Figdor CG. Targeting antigens to dendritic cells in vivo. Immunobiology. 2006;211(6–8):599–608.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bonifaz LC, Bonnyay DP, Charalambous A, Darguste DI, Fujii S-I, Soares H, et al. In vivo targeting of antigens to maturing dendritic cells via the DEC-205 receptor improves T cell vaccination. J Exp Med. 2004 Mar 15;199(6):815–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Gieseler RK, Marquitan G, Hahn MJ, Perdon LA, Driessen WHP, Sullivan SM, et al. DC-SIGN-specific liposomal targeting and selective intracellular compound delivery to human myeloid dendritic cells: implications for HIV disease. Scand J Immunol. 2004 May;59(5):415–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Agarwal R, Jurney P, Raythatha M, Singh V, Sreenivasan SV, Shi L, et al. Effect of shape, size, and aspect ratio on nanoparticle penetration and distribution inside solid tissues using 3D spheroid models. Adv Healthc Mater. 2015 Oct 28;4(15):2269–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Shima F, Uto T, Akagi T, Baba M, Akashi M. Size effect of amphiphilic poly(γ-glutamic acid) nanoparticles on cellular uptake and maturation of dendritic cells in vivo. Acta Biomater. 2013 Nov;9(11):8894–901.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Fifis T, Gamvrellis A, Crimeen-Irwin B, Pietersz GA, Li J, Mottram PL, et al. Size-dependent immunogenicity: therapeutic and protective properties of nano-vaccines against tumors. J Immunol Baltim Md 1950. 2004 Sep 1;173(5):3148–54.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Mathaes R, Winter G, Siahaan TJ, Besheer A, Engert J. Influence of particle size, an elongated particle geometry, and adjuvants on dendritic cell activation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm Off J Arbeitsgemeinschaft Pharm Verfahrenstechnik EV. 2015 Aug;94:542–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Sun J, Zhang L, Wang J, Feng Q, Liu D, Yin Q, et al. Tunable rigidity of (polymeric core)-(lipid shell) nanoparticles for regulated cellular uptake. Adv Mater Deerfield Beach Fla. 2015 Feb 25;27(8):1402–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Kaur R, Henriksen-Lacey M, Wilkhu J, Devitt A, Christensen D, Perrie Y. Effect of incorporating cholesterol into DDA:TDB liposomal adjuvants on bilayer properties, biodistribution, and immune responses. Mol Pharm. 2014 Jan 6;11(1):197–207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Benne N, van Duijn J, Kuiper J, Jiskoot W, Slütter B. Orchestrating immune responses: how size, shape and rigidity affect the immunogenicity of particulate vaccines. J Control Release. 2016 Jul 28;234:124–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Chablani L, Tawde SA, D’souza MJ. Spray-dried microparticles: a potential vehicle for oral delivery of vaccines. J Microencapsul. 2012 Jun 1;29(4):388–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Kumar M, Mani P, Pratheesh P, Chandra S, Jeyakkodi M, Chattopadhyay P, et al. Membrane fusion mediated targeted cytosolic drug delivery through scFv engineered Sendai viral envelopes. Curr Mol Med. 2015;15(4):386–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Bolhassani A, Javanzad S, Saleh T, Hashemi M, Aghasadeghi MR, Sadat SM. Polymeric nanoparticles. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2014 Feb 1;10(2):321–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Basu A, Kunduru KR, Katzhendler J, Domb AJ. Poly(α-hydroxy acid)s and poly(α-hydroxy acid-co-α-amino acid)s derived from amino acid. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2016 15;107:82–96.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Foged C, Hansen J, Agger EM. License to kill: formulation requirements for optimal priming of CD8+ CTL responses with particulate vaccine delivery systems. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2012 Mar 12;45(4):482–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Harding CV. Song R Phagocytic processing of exogenous particulate antigens by macrophages for presentation by class I MHC molecules. J Immunol Baltim Md 1950. 1994 Dec 1;153(11):4925–33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. McCraw DM, Gallagher JR, Torian U, Myers ML, Conlon MT, Gulati NM, et al. Structural analysis of influenza vaccine virus-like particles reveals a multicomponent organization. Sci Rep. 2018 Jul 9;8(1):1–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Xiang SD, Scholzen A, Minigo G, David C, Apostolopoulos V, Mottram PL, et al. Pathogen recognition and development of particulate vaccines: does size matter? Methods San Diego Calif. 2006 Sep;40(1):1–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Singh B, Maharjan S, Cho K-H, Cui L, Park I-K, Choi Y-J, et al. Chitosan-based particulate systems for the delivery of mucosal vaccines against infectious diseases. Int J Biol Macromol. 2018 Apr 15;110:54–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Bansal A, Wu X, Olson V, D’Souza MJ. Characterization of rabies pDNA nanoparticulate vaccine in poloxamer 407 gel. Int J Pharm. 2018 Jul 10;545(1–2):318–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Akalkotkar A, Chablani L, Tawde SA, D’Souza C, D’Souza MJ. Development of a microparticulate prostate cancer vaccine and evaluating the effect of route of administration on its efficacy via the skin. J Microencapsul. 2015 Apr 3;32(3):281–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. D’Souza MJ, Tawde SA, Akalkotkar A, Chablani L, D’Souza M, Chiriva-Internati M. Nanotechnology in Vaccine Delivery. In: Giese M, editor. Molecular vaccines: from prophylaxis to therapy - Volume 2 [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2014 [cited 2018 Oct 2]. p. 727–741. Available from: doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00978-0_19

  36. Singh MN, Hemant KSY, Ram M, Shivakumar HG. Microencapsulation: a promising technique for controlled drug delivery. Res Pharm Sci. 2010;5(2):65–77.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Kumar B, Jalodia K, Kumar P, Gautam HK. Recent advances in nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2017 Oct 1;41:260–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Agnihotri SA, Mallikarjuna NN, Aminabhavi TM. Recent advances on chitosan-based micro- and nanoparticles in drug delivery. J Control Release. 2004 Nov 5;100(1):5–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Singh R, Lillard JW. Nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery. Exp Mol Pathol. 2009 Jun;86(3):215–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Zaman RU, Mulla NS, Braz Gomes K, D’Souza C, Murnane KS, D’Souza MJ. Nanoparticle formulations that allow for sustained delivery and brain targeting of the neuropeptide oxytocin. Int J Pharm. 2018 Sep 5;548(1):698–706.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Mahapatro A, Singh DK. Biodegradable nanoparticles are excellent vehicle for site directed in-vivo delivery of drugs and vaccines. J Nanobiotechnology. 2011;9(1):55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. El-Say KM, El-Sawy HS. Polymeric nanoparticles: promising platform for drug delivery. Int J Pharm. 2017 Aug 7;528(1):675–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Borchard G, Audus KL, Shi F, Kreuter J. Uptake of surfactant-coated poly(methyl methacrylate)-nanoparticles by bovine brain microvessel endothelial cell monolayers. Int J Pharm. 1994 Sep 12;110(1):29–35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Bahrami B, Hojjat-Farsangi M, Mohammadi H, Anvari E, Ghalamfarsa G, Yousefi M, et al. Nanoparticles and targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Immunol Lett. 2017 Oct 1;190:64–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Zaman RU, Mulla NS, Braz Gomes K, D’Souza C, Murnane KS, D’Souza MJ. Nanoparticle formulations that allow for sustained delivery and brain targeting of the neuropeptide oxytocin. Int J Pharm. 2018 Sep 5;548(1):698–706.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Chablani L, Tawde SA, Akalkotkar A, D’Souza C, Selvaraj P, D’Souza MJ. Formulation and evaluation of a particulate oral breast cancer vaccine. J Pharm Sci. 2012 Oct 1;101(10):3661–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Stella B, Arpicco S, Peracchia MT, Desmaële D, Hoebeke J, Renoir M, et al. Design of folic acid-conjugated nanoparticles for drug targeting. J Pharm Sci. 2000 Nov 1;89(11):1452–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. D’Souza B, Bhowmik T, Shashidharamurthy R, Oettinger C, Selvaraj P, D’Souza M. Oral microparticulate vaccine for melanoma using M-cell targeting. J Drug Target. 2012 Feb 1;20(2):166–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. McGhee JR, Fujihashi K. Inside the mucosal immune system. PLoS Biol. 2012 Sep 25;10(9):e1001397.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Montilla NA, Blas MP, Santalla ML. Villa JMM. Mucosal immune system: a brief review. 2004;23(2):10.

    Google Scholar 

  51. O’Hara AM, Shanahan F. The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep. 2006 Jul;7(7):688–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Peters BM, Shirtliff ME, Jabra-Rizk MA. Antimicrobial Peptides: Primeval Molecules or Future Drugs? PLoS Pathog. 2010 Oct 28;6(10):e1001067.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Charles A Janeway J, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik MJ. The mucosal immune system. 2001 [cited 2018 Mar 29]; Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27169/

  54. Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J, Burcelin R, Gibson G, Jia W, et al. Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science. 2012 Jun 8;336(6086):1262–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. McNabb PC, Tomasi TB. Host defense mechanisms at mucosal surfaces. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1981;35:477–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Lamichhane A, Azegamia T, Kiyonoa H. The mucosal immune system for vaccine development. Vaccine. 2014 Nov 20;32(49):6711–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Shanahan F. The host-microbe interface within the gut. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2002 Dec;16(6):915–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Rescigno M, Urbano M, Valzasina B, Francolini M, Rotta G, Bonasio R, et al. Dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and penetrate gut epithelial monolayers to sample bacteria. Nat Immunol. 2001 Apr;2(4):361–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Macpherson AJ, Uhr T. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science. 2004 Mar 12;303(5664):1662–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Manicassamy S, Reizis B, Ravindran R, Nakaya H, Salazar-Gonzalez RM, Wang Y-C, et al. Activation of beta-catenin in dendritic cells regulates immunity versus tolerance in the intestine. Science. 2010 Aug 13;329(5993):849–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Azegami T, Yuki Y, Kiyono H. Challenges in mucosal vaccines for the control of infectious diseases. Int Immunol. 2014 Sep;26(9):517–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Holmgren J, Czerkinsky C. Mucosal immunity and vaccines. Nat Med. 2005 Apr;11(4 Suppl):S45–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Hieshima K, Kawasaki Y, Hanamoto H, Nakayama T, Nagakubo D, Kanamaru A, et al. CC chemokine ligands 25 and 28 play essential roles in intestinal extravasation of IgA antibody-secreting cells. J Immunol Baltim Md 1950. 2004 Sep 15;173(6):3668–3675.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Leung AK, Hon KL, Leong KF, Sergi CM. Measles: a disease often forgotten but not gone. Hong Kong Med J Xianggang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2018 Sep;24

    Google Scholar 

  65. Department of Pediatrics, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, Leung AK, Hon K, Leong K, Sergi C. Measles: a disease often forgotten but not gone. Hong Kong Med J [Internet]. 2018 Sep 24 [cited 2018 Oct 4]; Available from: http://www.hkmj.org/earlyrelease/hkmj187470.html

  66. Gala RP, Popescu C, Knipp GT, McCain RR, Ubale RV, Addo R, et al. Physicochemical and preclinical evaluation of a novel buccal measles vaccine. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2017 Feb;18(2):283–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. O’Hagan DT, Singh M, Ulmer JB. Microparticle-based technologies for vaccines. Methods San Diego Calif. 2006 Sep;40(1):10–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Lin C-Y, Lin S-J, Yang Y-C, Wang D-Y, Cheng H-F, Yeh M-K. Biodegradable polymeric microsphere-based vaccines and their applications in infectious diseases. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2015 Mar 4;11(3):650–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Singh R, Lillard JW. Nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery. Exp Mol Pathol. 2009 Jun;86(3):215–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Zhu M, Wang R, Nie G. Applications of nanomaterials as vaccine adjuvants. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2014;10(9):2761–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Soppimath KS, Aminabhavi TM, Kulkarni AR, Rudzinski WE. Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery devices. J Control Release Off J Control Release Soc. 2001 Jan 29;70:1–2):1–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, Center for Drug Delivery, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Rikhav P. Gala, Lotika Bajaj, Amit Bansal, Keegan Braz Gomes, Devyani Joshi, Ipshita Menon, Rokon Uz Zaman, Marissa D’Souza, Nigel D’Souza & Martin J. D’Souza

  2. Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    Rikhav P. Gala

  3. College of Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

    Susu M. Zughaier

  4. Roquette America Inc., Geneva, IL, USA

    Carmen Popescu

  5. Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Gregory T. Knipp

Authors
  1. Rikhav P. Gala
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lotika Bajaj
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Amit Bansal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Keegan Braz Gomes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Devyani Joshi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ipshita Menon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Rokon Uz Zaman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Susu M. Zughaier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Marissa D’Souza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Carmen Popescu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Nigel D’Souza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Gregory T. Knipp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Martin J. D’Souza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martin J. D’Souza .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College Pharmacy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    Pavan Muttil

  2. Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John’s University, Jamaica, NY, USA

    Nitesh K. Kunda

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Gala, R.P. et al. (2020). Oral Vaccine Delivery: The Coming Age of Particulate Vaccines to Elicit Mucosal Immunity. In: Muttil, P., Kunda, N. (eds) Mucosal Delivery of Drugs and Biologics in Nanoparticles. AAPS Advances in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Series, vol 41. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35910-2_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation