Abstract
The rise of the Islamic State (IS) had profound effects on the Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah (ASWJ) movement. For many, not only was the Khilafah (Caliphate) re-established, the extensive cost of human life brought on by the Syrian Civil War prompted many to leave Britain and fight for IS or live under what was perceived to be a true Islamic State ruled by the Shari’ah. Against the backdrop of domestic efforts to suppress the group, the discussion follows the immigration of a few key ASWJ followers to the Islamic State. There is also significant discussion on the threats posed by ‘foreign fighters’ and the UK Government’s attempts to manage that threat domestically and abroad, including a policy that it was better to kill them rather than allow them to return. The chapter ends with a discussion on the trial of Anjem Choudary and Mizanur Rahman.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
This finding was developed in the first few years of my research on ALM. See Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, chapters VII and X.
- 2.
Barrett, Richard, Foreign Fighters in Syria (New York: The Soufan Group, 2014) 13.
- 3.
Hegghammer, Thomas. “Should I Stay or Should I Go?” American Political Science Review Vol. 107, No. 1 (2013) 1.
- 4.
Hegghammer, “Should I Stay or Should I Go?” 7.
- 5.
The French were specifically noted in Adnan’s speech because they had recently initiated an air campaign against the IS.
- 6.
Adnani, Abu Mohammed, “Indeed, Your Lord is Ever Watchful,” Speech delivered 22 September 2014. Available at https://archive.org/stream/Mirsad_TR/English_Translation_djvu.txt. [Accessed 23 September 2014].
- 7.
This was typically done before or after halaqah sessions.
- 8.
Anonymized interview with subject 4.9.1 by author, September 2014.
- 9.
Rahman, Mizanur, Interview with author, September 2014.
- 10.
Fieldnotes: 24 September, 27 September, 03 October, 15 October 2014.
- 11.
Smith-Park, Laura, “UK Police Arrest 9 Men Suspected of Terror Offenses in London,” CNN Wire, 25 September 2014. http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A383554392/OVIC?u=long89855&xid=2ede7621. [Accessed 22 February 2018].
- 12.
One individual was retained in custody because he had not notified the police that he had changed his residence which was a condition of his license.
- 13.
Dodd, Vikram. “Anjem Choudary Released on Bail After Counter-Terrorism Investigation Arrests.” The Guardian, London, 26 September 2014. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/sep/26/anjem-choudary-released-on-bail. [Accessed 26 September 2014].
- 14.
Dodd, “Anjem Choudary Released on Bail After Counter-Terrorism Investigation Arrests.”
- 15.
Choudary, Anjem, Discussion with author, October 2014.
- 16.
Anonymous interview with leading activist, November 2014.
- 17.
Dhar, Siddhartha, Twitter post 26 November 2014. Available at Rumaysah@aburumaysah1435.twitter.com. [Accessed 26 November 2014].
- 18.
Al Britani, Abu Rumaysah, A Brief Guide to the Islamic State, Twitter post 19 May 2015. Available at https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CFW74UjWEAIYU4W.png. [Accessed 30 May 2015].
- 19.
BBC News. “Jihadi John Death: Islamic State Says Mohammed Emwazi Killed.” BBC News, London, 19 January 2016. Available at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-35358101. [Accessed 13 June 2018]; Kerbaj, Richard. “Jihad Sid Told Sister: I’ll Die for ISIS.” Sunday Times: London, 10 January 2016. Available at https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/jihadi-sid-told-sister-ill-die-for-isis-82fltm0fr5j. [Accessed 11 January 2016].
- 20.
Hamilton, Fiona; Deborah Haynes, John Simpson, and Michael Evans. “Suspect Ruled out by Experts in Hunt for Masked Murderer.” The Times, London, 05 Jan 2016. Available at https://search-proquest-com.csulb.idm.oclc.org/docview/1753197694?accountid=10351. [Accessed 23 February 2018].
- 21.
Middle East Eye. “Is Abu Rumaysah the Masked IS Gunman in Their Latest Video?” Middle East Eye, London. 04 January 2016. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4FoJJcLRlps. [Accessed 25 November 2018].
- 22.
Nesser, Peter, Anne Stenersen, and Emile Oftedal. “Jihadi Terrorism in Europe: The IS Effect.” Perspectives on Terrorism Vol. 10, No. 6 (2016) 4.
- 23.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR). Detailed Account of 2015 (London: Syrian Network for Human Rights, 2016), 5–6. Available at http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/Violations_in_Syria_during_2015_en.pdf. [Accessed 10 May 2018]. Also see http://sn4hr.org/blog/category/casualties/victims-death-toll-victims/
- 24.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), Detailed Account of 2015, 15.
- 25.
Field notes by author. 18 February 2015.
- 26.
Field notes by author. 18 February 2015.
- 27.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR). Detailed Account of 2014 (London: Syrian Network for Human Rights, 2015) 2. Available at http://sn4hr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/Violations_in_2014_En.pdf. [Accessed 10 May 2018].
- 28.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), Detailed Account of 2014, 3.
- 29.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), Detailed Account of 2015, 5–6.
- 30.
United Kingdom Parliament. Terrorism Act 2000 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2000); United Kingdom Parliament. Terrorism Act 2006 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2006).
- 31.
United Kingdom Parliament. Hansard Debates for 19 June 2014 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2014), 1008.
- 32.
Fieldnotes: 19 April, 26 May, 27 May, 27 August, 24 August 2014.
- 33.
Chulov, Martin. “40,000 Iraqis Stranded on Mountain as ISIS Jihadists Threaten Death.” The Guardian, London, 07 August 2014. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/07/40000-iraqis-stranded-mountain-isis-death-threat. [Accessed 19 April 2017].
- 34.
The idea that a properly functioning Khilafah system is responsible for providing Muslims and non-Muslims alike with food clothing and shelter comes from a hadith narrated by Salamah ibn ‘Ubayd-Allaah ibn Mihsan al-Khatmi and is captured in the collection of hadiths by both al-Bukhaari in al-Adab al-Mufrad (no. 300) and by al-Tirmidhi in al-Sunan (2346). It is one of the fundamental arguments used by the activists to advocate that the Khilafah system is superior to democracy and other forms of man-made law.
- 35.
Rahman, Mizanur and Anonymized CNN Photographer. Field notes by author (date redacted).
- 36.
Islamic State. “The Failed Crusade.” Dabiq, Vol. 4. Raqqa: Alhayat Media Center, 2014, 15.
- 37.
Islamic State, “The Failed Crusade,” 2014, 15.
- 38.
Rahman, Mizanur. Field notes by author (date redacted).
- 39.
Choudary, Anjem. “How Muslims Assess the Legitimacy of the Caliphate.” Posted on Youtube, 9 September 2014; Choudary, Anjem. Duties of the Khalifah and Conditions for his Removal. Posted on Youtube, November 2014. [Content removed by Youtube].
- 40.
Field notes from the sentencing phase of Choudary and Rahman’s trial. July 20 and 21, 2016.
- 41.
Barrett, Richard. Beyond the Caliphate: Foreign Fighters and the Threat of Returnees (New York; The Soufan Group, 2017) 7.
- 42.
Barrett, Beyond the Caliphate: Foreign Fighters and the Threat of Returnees, 13.
- 43.
Aziz, Rahin, Interview with author. October 2011.
- 44.
Aziz, Rahin, Interview with author, October 2011.
- 45.
Parris- Long, Adam, “Luton Jihadi Abu Rahin Aziz Dies in Drone Attack,” Luton Today, Luton, UK, 06 July 2015. Available at https://www.lutontoday.co.uk/news/crime/luton-jihadi-abu-rahin-aziz-die. [Accessed 18 May 2018].
- 46.
Anonymized interview with leading activist. Date redacted.
- 47.
Aziz, Rahin, Twitter Post, 17 January 2015. Also see Tom Wyke, “Radical British Islamist who Stabbed Football Fan in the Head with a Pen Skips Bail and Joins Islamic State in Syria,” Mail Online, London, 20 January, 2015. Available at https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2917710/Radical-British-Islamist-stabbed-football-fan-head-pen-skips-bail-joins-Islamic-State-Syria.html. [Accessed 18 May 2018].
- 48.
Wallace, Brian, “ABC News. 07 July 2015,” Available on Youtube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=53RqCyToahQ. [Accessed 05 May 2018].
- 49.
Wallace, ABC News, 2015.
- 50.
Islamic State. “Among the True Believers are True Men.” Rumiyah, Vol. 3 (2016) 14; Twitter. Picture of Abu Rahin Aziz after US drone strike. https://twitter.com/spikeuberss/status/619241031301623809. [Accessed 09 July 2015].
- 51.
O’Neill, Sean, “Son of Tottenham Ayatollah Has Gone to Fight with Jihadists,” The Times, London, 31 July 2015. Available at https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/son-of-tottenham-ayatollah-has-gone-to-fight-with-jihadists-xbpqv27n0fd. [Accessed 23 February 2018].
- 52.
Coghlan, Tom and Tony Bonnici, “Son of hate preacher Omar Bakri ‘killed while fighting for Isis,” The Times, London 31 October 2015. Available at https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/630206/ISIS-Islamic-State-July-7-bombings-Omar-Bakri-Muhammad. [Accessed 13 June 2016].
- 53.
Jay, Martin, “Son of London Hate Preacher Who Called 7/7 Bombers Fantastic Four Dies Fighting for ISIS,” The Express, London, 30 December 2015. Available at https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/630206/ISIS-Islamic-State-July-7-bombings-Omar-Bakri-Muhammad. [Accessed 02 January 2016].
- 54.
Fostok, Mohammed. Email received by author. Date redacted.
- 55.
Fostok, Mohammed. Email received by author. Date redacted.
- 56.
European Union, Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TESAT) (The Hague: EUROPOL, 2017); European Union. Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TESAT) (The Hague: EUROPOL, 2016) 22; European Union, Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TESAT) (The Hague: EUROPOL, 2015) 8.
- 57.
See the EU TESAT reports that cover the years 2015–2016 for a comprehensive report of terrorist activity in Europe.
- 58.
Official TESAT reports list 65 attacks in 2015 and 99 attacks in 2016.
- 59.
European Union, Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TESAT), 2017, 10 and 39–41.
- 60.
Official reporting by the UK list 16 attacks in 2015 and 76 attacks in 2016, all carried out by dissident groups in Northern Ireland. 26 and 40.
- 61.
European Union, Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TESAT), 2017, 22.
- 62.
Ross, Alice and Patrick Galey. Rise in Citizenship-Stripping as Government Cracks Downs of UK Fighters in Syria (London: The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2013) 2.
- 63.
Between 2006 and 2014, between 48 and 53 people had their citizenship revoked. See Gower, Melanie, Deprivation of British Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities (House of Commons, 2015) 4. Also see Ross and Galey, Rise in Citizenship-Stripping as Government Cracks Downs of UK Fighters in Syria (London: The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2013) 4.
- 64.
Ross and Galey, Rise in Citizenship-Stripping as Government Cracks Downs of UK Fighters in Syria (London: The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 2013) 4.
- 65.
Gower, Deprivation of British Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities, 1.
- 66.
Gower, Deprivation of British Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities, 1.
- 67.
United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York: United Nations 1948); Home Office, Immigration Bill: Fact Sheet Deprivation of Citizenship (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2014) 4.
- 68.
Gower, Deprivation of British Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities, 2015, 14.
- 69.
Home Office. Immigration Bill: Fact Sheet Deprivation of Citizenship, 2.
- 70.
Home Office. Immigration Bill: Fact Sheet Deprivation of Citizenship, 3.
- 71.
Gower, Deprivation of British Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities, 21.
- 72.
McGuinness, Terry and Melanie Gower. Deprivation of UK Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities (London: House of Commons, 2017) 3 and 11.
- 73.
McGuinness and Gower, Deprivation of UK Citizenship and Withdrawal of Passport Facilities, 2017, 11.
- 74.
Aziz, Twitter Post, 2015.
- 75.
CNN, “ISIS Fast Facts,” Atlanta: CNN, 2017. Available at https://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/08/world/isis-fast-facts/index.html. [Accessed 30 May 2018].
- 76.
CNN, “Raqqah: Us Coalition Wiped City off Earth, Russia Says,” Atlanta: CNN, 2017. Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-41714754. [Accessed 30 May 2018].
- 77.
United Nations, “UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria: Amid the Ruins of Ar-Raqqah and Dayr al-Zawr, Calls for Justice and Accountability by Victims and Families Must be Urgently Addressed” (New York: United Nations, 2018). Available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22766&LangID=E. [Accessed 30 May 2018].
- 78.
BBC, “Raqqa: US coalition ‘wiped city off Earth’, Russia says”; Also see Reuters, “Russia accuses U.S.-led coalition of ‘barbaric’ bombing of Syria’s Raqqa,” Reuters, London, 22 October 2017. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-weber/germanys-weber-says-draft-brexit-deal-will-not-be-renegotiated-idUSKCN1NO1IC. [Accessed 04 June 2018].
- 79.
United Nations, “UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria.”
- 80.
Anonymized activist email to author, (date redacted).
- 81.
McCann, Kate, “The Only Way of Dealing with British Islamic State Fighters is to Kill Them in Every Case, Minister Says.” The Telegraph, London, 22 October 2017. Available at https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/10/22/way-dealing-british-islamic-state-fighters-kill-almost-every/. [Accessed 30 May 2018].
- 82.
McCann, “The Only Way of Dealing with British Islamic State Fighters is to Kill Them in Every Case, Minister Says.”
- 83.
Hill, Max, “Returning Foreign Fighters and Extreme Material Online,” (London: Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, Blog, 2017). Available at https://terrorismlegislationreviewer.independent.gov.uk/returning-foreign-fighters-and-extreme-material-online/?highlight=foreign%20fighters. [Accessed 30 May 2018].
- 84.
Choudary was designated a global terrorist on 30 March 2017 (https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/03/269306.htm) and Dhar was added to the list on 23 January 2018 (https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/143210.htm).
- 85.
United States Department of State, Individuals and Entities Designated by the State Department Under E.O. 13,224 (Washington, DC: US Department of State, 2018). Available at https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/143210.htm. [Accessed 25 May 2018].
- 86.
Dhar family interview by author, 2018; Also see Kerbaj, “Jihad Sid Told Sister: I’ll Die for ISIS,” 2016.
- 87.
Anonymized activist email to author, (date redacted, a).
- 88.
It is acknowledged Michael Fallon’s comment is an accurate one. It would be impossible and impractical for anyone fighting an unconventional threat like IS to determine the nationalities of combatants before engaging them.
- 89.
United Kingdom Parliament. Terrorism Act 2000, 3.
- 90.
United Kingdom Parliament. Terrorism Act 2000, 7.
- 91.
United Kingdom Parliament. Terrorism Act 2000, 7.
- 92.
Home Office. Proscribed Terrorist Organisations (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2017) 5.
- 93.
United Kingdom Parliament, Hansard Debates for 20 July 2006 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2006) 1–4; also see United Kingdom Parliament. Hansard Debates for 24 July 2006, (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2006) 4.
- 94.
United Kingdom Parliament, Hansard Debates for 24 July 2006, 4.
- 95.
United Kingdom Parliament, Hansard Debates for 24 July 2006, 4.
- 96.
United Kingdom Parliament, Hansard Debates for 24 July 2006, 4.
- 97.
Weeks, Douglas M. Radicals and Reactionaries. The Polarisation of Community and Government in the Name of Public Safety and Security. PhD Thesis. University of Sta Andrews, Scotland, 2013, 297.
- 98.
United Kingdom Parliament, Terrorism Act 2006, 2.
- 99.
United Kingdom Parliament, Terrorism Act 2006, 3.
- 100.
Trial notes by author (date redacted); Also, conversation between author and leading activist, August 2014.
- 101.
Conversation between author and leading activist, August 2014; see Al Qaeda. Inspire, Issue 1. Yemen: al-Malahem Media, 2010, 31.
- 102.
BBC News, “Afsor Ali Jailed for Possessing Terrorist Material.” BBC News, London, 12 August 2014. Available at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-28752508. [Accessed 13 August 2014].
- 103.
Fieldnotes 04 March and 08 August 2014.
- 104.
Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, 215–233.
- 105.
Home Office, Operation of Police Powers Under Terrorism Act 2000 and Subsequent Legislation: Arrests, Outcomes, Stop and Search, Great Britain, Quarterly Update, December 2017 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2018). Available at https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/686342/police-powers-terrorism-dec2017-hosb0518.pdf. [Accessed 8 June 2018].
- 106.
Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, 215–233.
- 107.
Dawson, Johanna, Counter-Extremism Policy: An Overview (Briefing paper 7238) (London: House of Commons Library, 2016) 9.
- 108.
Conservative Party, Manifesto: Strong Leadership, A Clear Economic Plan, A Brighter, More Secure Future (London: The Conservative Party, 2015) 63.
- 109.
Home Office, Prevent Strategy (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 2011) 34.
- 110.
Numerus individuals have confirmed this. As an example, see the quote from subject MAC founder in Chap. 5.
- 111.
Mohammed, Omar Bakri, Interview with author, 2012.
- 112.
Choudary, Anjem, Interview with author, May 2011.
- 113.
Choudary, Anjem, Interview with author, May 2011.
- 114.
Choudary, Anjem. Interview with author, May 2011.
- 115.
Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, 299.
- 116.
Fieldnotes from 06 May, 20 July, 30 July, 11 September, 01 October, 11 October 2011.
- 117.
Choudary, Anjem, Interview with author, May 2011.
- 118.
Aziz, Rahin, Interview with author. November 2011.
- 119.
Kenney concluded the same in his study. See Kenney, The Islamic State in Britain, 224.
- 120.
Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, 272.
- 121.
Anonymized activist, interview with author, May 2014.
- 122.
Anonymized activist, interview with by author, May 2014.
- 123.
Anonymized activist, interview with author, January 2012.
- 124.
Anonymized interview with local council representative by author (date redacted).
- 125.
Weeks, Radicals and Reactionaries, 318.
- 126.
Anonymized NOMS interview with author, October 2011.
- 127.
For instance, Trevor Brooks (aka Abu Izzadeen), Ishtiaq Alamgir (aka Sayful Islam), Simon Keeler (aka Sulayman Keeler), and others.
- 128.
Choudary’s assessment is his own and should not be taken as an endorsement that his conclusions were correct or that the broader Muslim community would agree.
- 129.
Wahi refers to the revelation.
- 130.
Bayah means giving allegiance to a leader.
- 131.
Choudary, “How Muslims Assess the Legitimacy of the Caliphate,” 2014.
- 132.
Trial notes by Author. 21 July 2016.
- 133.
Trial notes by author. 22 July 2016.
- 134.
Trial notes by Author; Also See Royal Courts of Justice, R v Anjem Choudary and Mohammed Rahman (London: Royal Courts of Justice, 2016).
- 135.
Royal Courts of Justice. R v Anjem Choudary and Mohammed Rahman, 9.
- 136.
Flyer collected from activist outside The Old Bailey, 06 September 2016.
- 137.
Interview with leading activist, April 2015.
- 138.
It is acknowledged that the IS interpretation of how a Khilafah should function and how the Shar’iah should be implemented are different than how mainstream Muslims and even other radical groups interpret these issues.
- 139.
Anonymized activist, interview with author, 2018.
- 140.
Edwards, Bob and John D. McCarthy, “Resources and Social Movement Mobilization,” In David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (Singapore: Blackwell, 2004), 116–143.
- 141.
See for example Vikram Dodd, “Anjem Choudary Jailed for Five and a Half Years for Urging Support of ISIS,” The Guardian 06 September, 2016. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/06/anjem-choudary-jailed-for-five-years-and-six-months-for-urging-support-of-isis. [Accessed 06 September 2016]. This is also an area that Kenney and I disagree.
- 142.
Comas, Jordi, Paul Shrivastava, and Eric Martin, “Terrorism as Formal Organization, Network, and Social Movement,” Journal of Management Inquiry Vol. 24 No. 1 (2015) 50; Also see Thomas Hegghammer, Jihadi Culture: The Art and Social Practices of Militant Islamists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017) 16.
- 143.
Simon Cottee and Keith Hayward, “Terrorist (E)motives: The Existential Attractions of Terrorism,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 34 No. 12 (2011) 966.
- 144.
Thomas Hegghammer, “The Ideological Hybridization of Jihadi Groups,” Current Trends in Islamist Ideology Vol. 9 No. 1 (2009) 27.
- 145.
Simon Cottee and Keith Hayward, “Terrorist (E)motives: The Existential Attractions of Terrorism,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 34 No. 12 (2011) 966; Also see Khaled Fattah and K.M. Fierke, “A Clash of Emotions: The Politics of Humiliation and Political Violence in the Middle East,” European Journal of International Relations Vol. 15 No. 1 (2009) 70.
- 146.
See Easton Caller “Notorious Jihadist Group is Active Again and Grooming New Terrorists Online,” 26 August 2019. Available at https://eastoncaller.com/notorious-jihadist-group-is-active-again-and-grooming-new-terrorists-online/182817/. [Accessed 26 August 2019].
- 147.
For additional conditions see BBC News, “Anjem Choudary, Radical Preacher, Released from Prison,” BBC News, London, 19 October 2018. Available at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-45911160. [Accessed 19 October 2018].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Weeks, D. (2020). The Impacts of the Islamic State and Strategies of Control. In: Al Muhajiroun. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35840-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35840-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-35839-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-35840-2
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)