Abstract
Theoretical conceptualizations of prejudice have shifted dramatically over the past century, with prejudice first conceptualized as a natural and normative – and often overtly expressed – response of members of dominant groups to the perceived inferiority of members of nondominant groups. More recently, prejudice has been conceptualized as reflecting those attitudinal and affective responses of dominant groups toward nondominant groups that are subtle and occur outside of awareness as a function of unconscious processes. Shifts in the conceptualization of prejudice have occurred in tandem with shifts in the acceptability of overtly expressed prejudicial beliefs and behaviors; shifts in the general language used to describe prejudicial thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; and shifts in the aims, operational definitions, and methodologies employed in evaluating the occurrence and harmful impacts of prejudice. The sociocultural context is immediately relevant to the identification of dominant in-groups and nondominant out-groups, with the dominance of any in-group typically reflecting both the social privilege and resource advantage associated with one or more characteristics of the in-group. Although prejudicial attitudes can be held by members of dominant in-groups and members of nondominant out-groups, it is the ability to translate prejudicial attitudes into discriminatory behavior that differentiates the two groups. This chapter provides definitions of historic and modern prejudice; a broad overview of the theories that have been forwarded to explain the development and maintenance of prejudicial attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors; a brief review of prejudice as it occurs in relation to specific nondominant cultural identities; and a brief review of the changes in assessment methodologies employed by researchers to assess the occurrence of prejudice.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abu-Ras, W., & Abu-Bader, S. H. (2009). Risk factors for depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): The case of Arab and Muslim Americans post-9/11. Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies, 7(4), 393–418.
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality (p. 415). New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Altemeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other “authoritarian personality”. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 47–92.
American Civil Liberties Union. (2002). International civil liberties report. http://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/iclr2002.pdf
Balsam, K. F., & Mohr, J. J. (2007). Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 306–316.
Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT people of color microaggressions scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(2), 163–174.
Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27.
Bennett, L. M., McIntosh, E., & Henson, F. O. (2017). African American college students and racial microaggressions: Assumptions of criminality. Journal of Psychology, 5(2), 14–20.
Ben-Zeev, T., Fein, S., & Inzlicht, M. (2005). Arousal and stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(2), 174–181.
Böhm, R., Rusch, H., & Baron, J. (2018). The psychology of intergroup conflict: A review of theories and measures. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.01.020
Borrell, L. N., Roux, A. V. D., Jacobs, D. R., Jr., Shea, S., Jackson, S. A., Shrager, S., & Blumenthal, R. S. (2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, smoking and alcohol consumption in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Preventive Medicine, 51(3–4), 307–312.
Brondolo, E., Brady Ver Halen, N., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., Contrada, R. J., et al. (2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 64–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0
Calogero, R. M., & Jost, J. T. (2011). Self-subjugation among women: Exposure to sexist ideology, self-objectification, and the protective function of the need to avoid closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 211–228.
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105.
Catalyst. (2016). Quick Take: Women of color in the United States. New York, NY: Author.
Center for the American Woman and Politics. (2018). Fact sheet: Women in elective office 2018. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.
Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2009). Burden of psychiatric morbidity among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in the California Quality of Life Survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(3), 647–658.
Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Alegria, M., Ortega, A. N., & Takeuchi, D. (2007). Mental health and substance use disorders among Latino and Asian American lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 785–794.
Cochran, S. D., Sullivan, J. G., & Mays, V. M. (2003). Prevalence of mental disorders, psychological distress, and mental health services use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 53–61.
Coltrane, S. (2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1208–1233.
Condit, C. M. (2007). How culture and science make race “genetic”: Motives and strategies for discrete categorization of the continuous and heterogeneous. Literature and Medicine, 26(1), 240–268. Project MUSE. https://doi.org/10.1353/lm.2008.0000
Condit, C. M. (2008). Race and genetics from a modal materialist perspective. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 94(4), 383–406.
Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2005). The status of Muslim Civil Rights in the United States: Unequal protection. Washington, DC: Author.
Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. (2003). A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 414.
Crandall, C. S., & Stangor, C. (2005). Conformity and prejudice. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Dagnan, D., & Waring, M. (2004). Linking stigma to psychological distress: Testing a social–cognitive model of the experience of people with intellectual disabilities. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory and Practice, 11(4), 247–254.
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women’s performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 764–779.
Davis, A. Y. (2016). Freedom is a constant struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the foundations of a movement. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.
Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services. (2018). Defense Advisory Committee on Woman in the Service 2018 Annual Report. (Report No. 8-1A20B83). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense.
DeLoach, C. P. (1994). Attitudes toward disability: Impact on sexual development and forging of intimate relationships. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 25(1), 18–25.
DeSalle, R., & Ian Tattersall, I. (2018). Troublesome science: The misuse of genetics and genomics in understanding race. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267–1278.
Dixon, J., Levine, M., Reicher, S., & Durrheim, K. (2012). Beyond prejudice: Are negative evaluations the problem and is getting us to like one another more the solution? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 411–466. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11002214
Duckitt, J. H. (1992). Psychology and prejudice: A historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47(10), 1182.
Duckitt, J. (2015). Authoritarian personality. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences 2(2), 255–261. Oxford, EN: Elsevier.
Edgell, P., Gerteis, J., & Hartmann, D. (2006). Atheists as “other”: Moral boundaries and cultural membership in American society. American Sociological Review, 71(2), 211–234.
Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M. (2019). Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex. PNAS, 116(34), 16793–16798
Fitzgerald, L. F. (1993). Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace. American Psychologist, 48(10), 1070–1076.
Ford, D. Y., Scott, M. T., Moore, J. L., & Amos, S. O. (2013). Gifted education and culturally different students: Examining prejudice and discrimination via microaggressions. Gifted Child Today, 36(3), 205–208.
Forscher, P. S., Cox, W. T. L., Graetz, N., & Devine, P. G. (2015). The motivation to express prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(5), 791–812.
Forscher, P. S., & Devine, P. G. (2016). The role of intentions in conceptions of prejudice: An historical perspective. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (2nd ed., pp. 241–254). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Garth, T. R. (1925). A review of racial psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 22(6), 343–364.
Garth, T. R. (1930). A review of race psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 27(5), 329–356.
Gilman, S. E., Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Hughes, M., Ostrow, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Risk of psychiatric disorders among individuals reporting same-sex sexual partners in the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91(6), 933–939.
Ginder, S. A., Kelly-Reid, J. E., & Mann, F. B. (2018). Postsecondary Institutions and Cost of Attendance in 2017–2018; Degrees and Other Awards Conferred, 2016–2017; and 12-Month Enrollment, 2016–2017. (Report No. NCES 2018060REV). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480.
Hall, A. V., Hall, E. V., & Perry, J. L. (2016). Black and blue: Exploring racial bias and law enforcement in the killings of unarmed black male civilians. American Psychologist, 71(3), 175–186.
Hall, D. L., Matz, D. C., & Wood, W. (2010). Why don’t we practice what we preach? A meta-analytic review of religious racism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 126–139.
Haller, B. A. (2010). Representing disability in an ableist world: Essays on mass media. Louisville, KY: The Advocado Press.
Hays, P. A. (2008). Addressing cultural complexities in practice: A framework for clinicians and counselors (2nd ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Harpur, P. D. (2014). Combating prejudice in the workplace with contact theory: The lived experiences of professionals with disabilities. Disability Studies Quarterly, 34(1), 17.
Henry, F., & Tator, C. (1994). The ideology of racism: “Democratic racism.” Canadian Ethnic Studies, 26(2), 1–14.
Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(1), 19–22.
Herrero, J., Rodríguez, F. J., & Torres, A. (2017). Acceptability of partner violence in 51 societies: The role of sexism and attitudes toward violence in social relationships. Violence Against Women, 23(3), 351–367.
Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
Hochschild, A., & Machung, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. New York, NY: Viking.
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1369–1385.
Houtenville, A. J., & Ruiz, T. (2012). 2012 annual disability statistics compendium. Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire Institute on Disability.
Huebner, D. M., & Davis, M. C. (2007). Perceived antigay discrimination and physical health outcomes. Health Psychology, 26(5), 627–634.
Ibish, H., & ADC Research Institute., & American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. (2003). Report on hate crimes and discrimination against Arab Americans: The post September 11 backlash, September 11, 2001 – October 11, 2002. Washington, DC: American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. (2018). African Americans, police use of force, and human rights in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States.
Jorm, A. F., Korten, A. E., Rodgers, B., Jacomb, P. A., & Christensen, H. (2002). Sexual orientation and mental health: Results from a community survey of young and middle–aged adults. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180(5), 423–427.
Jost, J. T., & Hunyady, O. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 260–265.
Keller, R. M., & Galgay, C. E. (2010). Microaggressive experiences of people with disabilities. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 241–268). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of racist ideas in America. New York, NY: Nation Books.
Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. New York, NY: One World.
Kteily, N., Bruneau, E., Waytz, A., & Cotterill, S. (2015). The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(5), 901–931.
Kurdi, B., Seitchik, A. E., Axt, J. R., Carroll, T. J., Karapetyan, A., Kaushik, N., ... Banaji, M. R. (2019). Relationship between the Implicit Association Test and intergroup behavior: A meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 74(5), 569–586.
Kuchynka, S.L., Salomon, K., Bosson, J.K., El-Hout, M., Kiebel, E., Cooperman, C., & Toomey, R. (2018). Hostile and benevolent sexism and college women’s STEM outcomes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(1), 72–87.
Lajevardi, N., & Oskooii, K. A. (2018). Old-fashioned racism, contemporary islamophobia, and the isolation of Muslim Americans in the age of Trump. Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics, 3(1), 112–152.
Lee, D. B., Kim, E. S., & Neblett, E. W., Jr. (2017). The link between discrimination and telomere length in African American adults. Health Psychology, 36(5), 458–467.
Legge, M. M., Flanders, C. E., & Robinson, M. (2018). Young bisexual people’s experiences of microaggression: Implications for social work. Social Work in Mental Health, 16(2), 125–144.
Leone, P. E., Mayer, M. J., Malmgren, K., & Meisel, S. M. (2000). School violence and disruption: Rhetoric, reality, and reasonable balance. Focus on Exceptional Children, 33(1), 1–20.
Lewis, J. A., & Neville, H. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302.
Lillis, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2007). Applying acceptance, mindfulness, and values to the reduction of prejudice. A pilot study. Behavior Modification, 31(4), 389–411.
Massey, S. G., Merriwether, A. M., & Garcia, J. R. (2013). Modern prejudice and same-sex parenting: Shifting judgments in positive and negative parenting situations. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 9(2), 129–151.
McCaughey, T. J., & Strohmer, D. C. (2005). Prototypes as an indirect measure of attitudes toward disability groups. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 48(2), 89–99.
McNeilly, M. D., Anderson, N. B., Armstead, C. A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E. L., … Lepisto, E. M. (1996). The perceived racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethnicity and Disease, 6, 154–166.
Merriam-Webster. (2019) Miraim-Webster.com dictoionary. Retreived July 24, 2018 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/
Miller, K., & Vagins, D. J. (2018). The simple truth about the gender pay gap: Fall 2018 edition. Washington, DC: AAUW.
Morris, J. (1991). Pride against prejudice: Transforming attitudes to disability. London, UK: The Women’s Press.
Mulick, P. S., & Wright, L. W., Jr. (2002). Examining the existence of biphobia in the heterosexual and homosexual populations. Journal of Bisexuality, 2(4), 45–64.
Museus, S. D., & Park, J. J. (2015). The continuing significance of racism in the lives of Asian American college students. Journal of College Student Development, 56(6), 551–569.
Nadal, K. L. (2011). The racial and ethnic microaggressions scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 470–480.
Nadal, K. L., Davidoff, K. C., Davis, L. S., Wong, Y., Marshall, D., & McKenzie, V. (2015). A qualitative approach to intersectional microaggressions: Understanding influences of race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and religion. Qualitative Psychology, 2(2), 147–163.
Nadal, K. L., Griffin, K. E., Hamit, S., Leon, J., Tobio, M., & Rivera, D. P. (2012). Subtle and overt forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 6(2), 15–37.
Nadal, K. L., Issa, M., Griffin, K. E., Hamit, S., & Lyons, O. B. (2010). Religious microaggressions in the United States: Mental health implications for religious minority groups. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 287–310). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Nadal, K. L., Mazzula, S. L., Rivera, D. P., & Fujii-Doe, W. (2014). Microaggressions and Latina/o Americans: An analysis of nativity, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 2(2), 67–78.
Nadal, K. L., Whitman, C. N., Davis, L. S., Erazo, T., & Davidoff, K. C. (2016). Microaggressions toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and genderqueer people: A review of the literature. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 488–508.
Nadal, K. L., Wong, Y., Griffin, K. E., Davidoff, K., & Sriken, J. (2014). The adverse impact of racial microaggressions on college students’ self-esteem. Journal of College Student Development, 55(5), 461–474.
Nadler, J. T., & Clark, M. H. (2011). Stereotype threat: A meta-analysis comparing African Americans to Hispanic Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(4), 872–890.
National Council on Crime and Delinquency. (2007). And justice for some: Differential treatment of youth of color in the justice system. Oakland, CA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.nccdglobal.org/sites/default/files/publication_pdf/justicefor-some.pdf
Nguyen, H. H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008). Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1314–1334.
Okoro, C. A., Hollis, N. D., Cyrus, A. C., & Griffin-Blake, S. (2018). Prevalence of disabilities and health care access by disability status and type among adults — United States, 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67, 882–887. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6732a3externalicon
Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., & Tetlock, P. E. (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(2), 171–192.
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., & Pieterse, A. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10(9), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511
Peters, H. J., Schwenk, H. N., Ahlstrom, Z. R., & McIalwain, L. N. (2017). Microaggressions: The experience of individuals with mental illness. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 86–112.
Pietrse, A. L., Todd, N. R., Neville, H. A., & Carter, R. T. (2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 1–9.
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(3), 811–832.
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763.
Paradies, Y. (2018). Racism and indigenous health. Retrieved July 2019 from https://oxfordre.com/publichealth/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.001.0001/acrefore-9780190632366-e-86
Rivera, D. P., Forquer, E. E., & Rangel, R. (2010). Microaggressions and the life experience of Latina/o Americans. In D. W. Sue (Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 59–83). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Robin, L., Brener, N. D., Donahue, S. F., Hack, T., Hale, K., & Goodenow, C. (2002). Associations between health risk behaviors and opposite-, same-, and both-sex sexual partners in representative samples of Vermont and Massachusetts high school students. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156(4), 349–355.
Sadler, M. S., Correll, J., Park, B., & Judd, C. M. (2012). The world is not black and white: Racial bias in the decision to shoot in a multiethnic context. Journal of Social Issues, 68(2), 286–313.
Salvatore, J., & Shelton, J. N. (2007). Cognitive costs of exposure to racial prejudice. Psychological Science, 18(9), 810–815.
Sandfort, T. G., de Graaf, R., Bijl, R. V., & Schnabel, P. (2001). Same-sex sexual behavior and psychiatric disorders: Findings from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS). Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(1), 85–91.
Sarno, E., & Wright, A. J. (2013). Homonegative microaggressions and identity in bisexual men and women. Journal of Bisexuality, 13(1), 63–81.
Sartore, M. L., & Cunningham, G. B. (2009). Gender, sexual prejudice and sport participation: Implications for sexual minorities. Sex Roles, 60(1–2), 100–113.
Sibley, C. G., & Duckitt, J. (2008). Personality and prejudice prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(3), 248–279.
Scarville, J., Button, S. B., Edwards, J. E., Lancaster, A. R., & Elig, T. W. (1999). Armed forces equal opportunity survey. Arlington, VA: Defense Manpower Data Center.
Schur, L., & Adya, M. (2012). Sidelined or mainstreamed? Political participation and attitudes of people with disabilities in the United States. Social Science Quarterly, 94(3), 811–839.
Schur, L., Adya, M., & Kruse, D. (2013). Disability, voter turnout, and voting difficulties in the 2012 elections. Washington, DC: U.S. Election Assistance Commission.
Schuster, M. A., Reisner, S. L., & Onorato, S. E. (2016). Beyond bathrooms—Meeting the health needs of transgender people. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(2), 101–103.
Shaver, J. H., Troughton, G., Sibley, C. G., & Bulbulia, J. A. (2016). Religion and the unmaking of prejudice toward Muslims: Evidence from a large national sample. PLoS One, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150209
Sherif, M. (1966). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment. Middletown, PA: Wesleyan University Press.
Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. W. (1953). Groups in harmony and tension: An integration of studies on intergroup relations. New York, NY: Harper.
Sides, J., & Gross, K. (2013). Stereotypes of Muslims and support for the war on terror. The Journal of Politics, 75(3), 583–598.
Sims, M., Diez-Roux, A. V., Gebreab, S. Y., Brenner, A., Dubbert, P., Wyatt, S., … Taylor, H. (2016). Perceived discrimination is associated with health behaviours among African-Americans in the Jackson Heart Study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 70(2), 187–194.
Smith, P., Caputi, P., & Crittenden, N. (2012). How are women’s glass ceiling beliefs related to career success? Career Development International, 17(5), 458–474.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811.
Stephan, W. S., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 23–46). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stockard, J., & Johnson, M. M. (1992). Sex and gender in society (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sue, D. W., & Capodilupo, C. M. (2008). Racial, gender, and sexual orientation microaggressions: Implications for counseling and psychotherapy. In D. W. Sue & D. Sue (Eds.), Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed., pp. 105–130). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–37). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relation (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Hall Publishers.
Thomas, R., Yee, L., Cooper, M., Krivkovich, A., Konar, H., Starikova, I., … Robinson, N. (2018). Women in the workplace 2018. New York, N.Y.: LeanIn.Org and McKinsey & Company.
Toomey, J. F. (1993). Final report of the Bawnmore personal development programme: Staff attitudes and sexuality programme development in an Irish service organization for people with mental handicap. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 14(2), 129–144.
Torres, L., Driscoll, M. W., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(10), 1074–1099.
Utsey, S. O., Giesbrecht, N., Hook, J., & Stanard, P. M. (2008). Cultural, sociofamilial, and psychological resources that inhibit psychological distress in African Americans exposed to stressful life events and race-related stress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(1), 49–62.
Utsey, S. O., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1996). Development and validation of the Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 490–501.
Walton, G. M., & Spencer, S. J. (2009). Latent ability: Grades and test scores systematically underestimate the intellectual ability of negatively stereotyped students. Psychological Science, 20(9), 1132–1139.
Washington, H. A. (2007). Medical apartheid: The dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Werner, S. (2015). Public stigma in intellectual disability: Do direct versus indirect questions make a difference? Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(10), 958–969.
Woodford, M. R., Howell, M. L., Silverschanz, P., & Yu, L. (2012). “That’s so gay!”: Examining the covariates of hearing this expression among gay, lesbian, and bisexual college students. Journal of American College Health, 60(6), 429–434.
Woodworth, R. S. (1916). The comparative psychology of races. Psychological Bulletin, 13(10), 388–397.
Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., & Blumberg, S. J. (2015). Estimated prevalence of autism and other developmental disabilities following questionnaire changes in the 2014 National Health Interview Survey. (Report No. 87). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Duckworth, M.P., Radenhausen, M., Seekins, M., Iezzi, T. (2020). Modern Prejudice. In: Benuto, L., Duckworth, M., Masuda, A., O'Donohue, W. (eds) Prejudice, Stigma, Privilege, and Oppression. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35517-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35517-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-35516-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-35517-3
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)