Practical Use of Satellite Data in Support of Human Rights

Froehlich, Annette; Tăiatu, Claudiu Mihai

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35426-8_2

Practical Use of Satellite Data in Support of Human Rights

Chapter
First Online: 03 January 2020

380 Accesses
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Part of the book series: Studies in Space Policy ((STUDSPACE,volume 23))

Abstract

This chapter debates the usefulness of satellite imagery from a practical perspective. Cases presented analyse the important role of satellite imagery in updating and extracting land related information, such as a historical record of the areas that are subject to changes over time and their usefulness for territorial delimitation. In analysing these cases, the work of non-governmental organizations for human rights will be highlighted including the use of satellite imagery in their investigations. Examples are provided in regards to the need to prove violations of human rights with the help of satellite imagery during wartime. Another aspect is how real time deforestation detection through satellite images could be among the game changing solutions to save the Amazon Rainforest and to defending indigenous communities. Further questions turn around why satellite imagery is indispensable for forecasting the weather and necessary for waste management, and why it is effective for oil spill surveillance. Finally, as per the treaty compliance requirements, the need for treaties to specifically provide for the use of satellite data as a tool to monitor compliance will be discussed.

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Notes

1.
Wolfinbarger, S., Drake, J., Ashcroft, E., Monitoring Border Conflicts with Satellite Imagery: A Handbook for Practitioners, AAAS, pp. 4, 2015, https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/reports/Handbook.pdf, (accessed 28.09.2019).
2.
Ali, Z., Ahmed, S., Extracting Parcel Boundaries from Satellite Imagery for a Land Information System, Conference Paper: 6th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST 2013), June 2013, pp. 79, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239237780_Extracting_Parcel_Boundaries_from_Satellite_Imagery_for_a_Land_Information_System, (accessed 20.07.2019).
3.
Ibid. supra note. Ali, Z., Ahmed, S., Extracting Parcel Boundaries from Satellite Imagery for a Land Information System, Conference Paper: 6th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST 2013), June 2013, pp. 79.
4.
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Applied Issues in International Land Boundary Delimitation/Demarcation Practices, pp. 5, 2011, https://www.osce.org/secretariat/85263?download=true, (accessed 21 July 2019).
5.
Foucer, M., Institute of Higher National Defence Studies, Paris, France in: OSCE, Applied Issues in International Land Boundary Delimitation/Demarcation Practices, pp. 7, 2011, https://www.osce.org/secretariat/85263?download=true, (accessed 21.07.2019).
6.
EOM K.S., Cartographic Section, Department of Field Support, United Nations, New York, in: OSCE, Applied Issues in International Land Boundary Delimitation/Demarcation Practices, pp. 22, 2011, https://www.osce.org/secretariat/85263?download=true, (accessed 21.07.2019).
7.
Ibid. supra note EOM K.S., Cartographic Section, Department of Field Support, United Nations, New York, in: OSCE, Applied Issues in International Land Boundary Delimitation/Demarcation Practices, pp. 22, 2011.
8.
Cosquer, G., (Retired) State Senior Survey Engineer, Institut Géographique National-(IGN) France, in: OSCE, Applied Issues in International Land Boundary Delimitation/Demarcation Practices, pp. 24, 2011, https://www.osce.org/secretariat/85263?download=true, (accessed 21.07.2019).
9.
University of Durham, International Boundaries Research Unit (IBRU), Boundary-making and resolving disputed territorial claims, https://impact.ref.ac.uk/casestudies/CaseStudy.aspx?Id=11842, (accessed 21.07.2019).
10.
Adler, R., (2000) International Boundaries Research Unit “Boundary and Territory Briefing” pp. 4–5, pp. 22, pp. 27.
11.
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12.
Ibid. supra note Sayel, M.A., Lohmann, P., Heipke, C., International Boundary Making—Three Case Studies, https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVIII/1_4_7-W5/paper/Al_Sayel-123.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
13.
North, H.C., Pairman, D., Beliss S.E., Boundary Delineation of Agricultural Fields in Multitemporal Satellite Imagery, 2018, in: IEEE Journal of selected topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, pp. 99: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1109/jstars.2018.2884513, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329817494_Boundary_Delineation_of_Agricultural_Fields_in_Multitemporal_Satellite_Imagery, (accessed 20.07.2019).
14.
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15.
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16.
Ibid. supra note Pedris, L, Tech and collaboration are putting indigenous land rights on the map, 26 March 2018, https://news.mongabay.com/2018/03/tech-and-collaboration-are-putting-indigenous-land-rights-on-the-map/, (accessed 29.06.2019).
17.
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18.
Riamit, S., Tauli-Corpuz, V., Indigenous Peoples’ Perspectives and Activities in Monitoring Reporting, and Indicators Development for REDD+ and A Review of the MRV Concepts, Tools and Instruments, pp. 26, https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/system/files/documents/Indigenous%20Peoples%20Perspective%20on%20Community%20based%20MRV%20for%20Social%20and%20Enviromental%20Standards.pdf, (accessed 29.07.2019).
19.
Walker, R.S., Kesler, D.C., and Hill, R.K., Are Isolated Indigenous Populations Headed toward Extinction? March 2018, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783021/, (accessed 29.07.2019).
20.
Ibid. supra note Walker, R.S., Kesler, D.C., and Hill, R.K., Are Isolated Indigenous Populations Headed toward Extinction? March 2018, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4783021/, (accessed 29.07.2019).
21.
IWGIA, Serious Deterioration of Human Rights and Indigenous Rights Conditions in Brazil, 14 March 2019, https://www.iwgia.org/en/brazil/3320-serious-deterioration-of-human-rights-and-indigenous-rights-conditions-in-brazil, (accessed 23.07.2019).
22.
Ibid. supra note IWGIA, Serious Deterioration of Human Rights and Indigenous Rights Conditions in Brazil, 14 March 2019.
23.
Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019 https://www.iwgia.org/en/documents-and-publications/documents/4-the-indigenous-world-2019/file, (accessed 23.07.2019).
24.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 87.
25.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 161.
26.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 162.
27.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 163.
28.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 164.
29.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 166–167.
30.
Case No. 21333201800266, Provincial Court of Sucumbios, October 2018
See also: UN GA A/HRC/42/37/Add.1, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous people, Paragraph 41, 4 July 2019, http://unsr.vtaulicorpuz.org/site/images/docs/country/2019-ecuador-a-hrc-42-37-add1-en.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
31.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 198.
32.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 200.
33.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 201.
34.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 201.
35.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 203.
See also analysis of Juan Carlos Ruiz Molleda referenced at pp. 203.
36.
Ibid. supra note Berger D.N. (Eds.), “The Indigenous World 2019”. April 2019, pp. 204.
37.
Human Rights Watch News, Waiting Here for Death. Forced Displacement and Villagization in Ethiopia’s Gambella Region, 16 January 2012, https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/01/16/waiting-here-death/forced-displacement-and-villagization-ethiopias-gambella-region#page, (accessed 10.05.2019).
38.
Ibid. supra note HRW Waiting Here for Death. Forced Displacement and Villagization in Ethiopia’s Gambella Region, 16 January 2012.
39.
Human Rights Watch Press Release, Ethiopia: Forced Relocations Bring Hunger, Hardship. Donors Fund Should not Facilitate Abuse of Indigenous Groups, 16 January 2012, https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/01/16/ethiopia-forced-relocations-bring-hunger-hardship, (accessed 10.05.2019).
40.
Ibid. supra note HRW Waiting Here for Death. Forced Displacement and Villagization in Ethiopia’s Gambella Region, 16 January 2012.

Laws that severely infringe on the functioning of NGOs including the Charities and Societies Proclamation and the Anti-Terrorism Proclamation; restrictions on media freedoms; the government’s intolerance of political dissent; and the intimidation and fear generated by government officials that permeates life in Ethiopia.
41.
Maxmen, A., AAAS Geospatial Report: Ethiopian “Villagization” Policy is Displacing Farmers in Gambella Region, 17 January 2012.
See also: Froehlich, A., Space Applications Supporting Justice, 2019 in: Froehlich, A., (Eds.) Embedding Space In African Society. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030 Supported by Space Applications.
42.
Ibid. supra note Maxmen, A., AAAS Geospatial Report: Ethiopian “Villagization” Policy is Displacing Farmers in Gambella Region, 17 January 2012.
43.
AAAS Report “Documentation of Villagization: Gambella Region, Ethiopia”.
See also: AAAS Human Rights Applications of Remote Sensing. Case Studies from the Geospatial Technologies and Human Rights Project, 2014, https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/reports/Human_Rights_Applications_of_Remote_Sensing.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
44.
Ibid. supra note Maxmen, A., AAAS Geospatial Report: Ethiopian “Villagization” Policy is Displacing Farmers in Gambella Region, 17 January 2012.
45.
“The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is the foundation of the human rights protection and the basis to build the country’s democratic system. The Constitution, under Article 9(4) provides that international agreements ratified by Ethiopia form an integral part of the law of the land and under Article 13 enshrines the responsibility of all branches of Government to respect and ensure respect the fundamental rights and freedoms”.
46.
UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/1, (2014). “National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21 Ethiopia”, Paragraph 27.
47.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/1, (2014), Paragraph 101.
48.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/1, (2014), Paragraph 109.
49.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/1, (2014), Paragraph 108.
50.
UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/2, (2014). “Compilation prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in accordance with paragraph 15 (b) of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 5/1 and paragraph 5 of the annex to Council resolution 16/21”, Paragraph 69,
https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G14/109/38/PDF/G1410938.pdf?OpenElement, (accessed 11.05.2019).
51.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/2, (2014), Paragraph 69.
52.
UNGA A/HRC/22/67, (2013). “Communications report of Special Procedures”, pp. 126, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A-HRC-22-67_EFS.pdf, (accessed 11.05.2019).
53.
A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 6, 2018, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx, (accessed 05.06.2019).
54.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 7, 2018.
55.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 9, 2018.
56.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 42, 2018.
57.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 50, 2018.
58.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 51, 2018.
59.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 85, 2018.
60.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 87, 2018.
61.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 88, 2018.
62.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 89, 2018.
63.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 95, 2018.
64.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 96, 2018.
65.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 97, 2018.
66.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 98, 2018.
67.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/39/64, Report of the Independent international fact-finding mission on Myanmar, Paragraph 107, 2018.
68.
ICJ, Memorial submitted by the Islamic Republic of Iran, 8 June 1993, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/90/8622.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
69.
ICJ, Counter-Memorial and Counter-Claim submitted by the United States of America, 23 June 1997, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/90/8632.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
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International Court of Justice, (2003) Oil Platforms (Iran v. U.S.), 2003 I.C.J. 161 (Nov. 6), Oil Platforms: Iran vs. United States Judgement, 6 November 2003, General List No. 90, Paragraph 53 http://www.worldcourts.com/icj/eng/decisions/2003.11.06_oil_platforms.htm, (accessed 13.05.2019).
71.
Ibid. supra note International Court of Justice, (2003) Oil Platforms (Iran v. U.S.), 2003 I.C.J. 161 (Nov. 6) Oil Platforms: Iran vs. United States Judgement, 6 November 2003, Paragraph 54.
72.
Ibid. supra note International Court of Justice, (2003) Oil Platforms (Iran v. U.S.), 2003 I.C.J. 161 (Nov. 6), Oil Platforms: Iran vs. United States Judgement, 6 November 2003, Paragraph 56.
73.
Ibid. supra note International Court of Justice, (2003) Oil Platforms (Iran v. U.S.), 2003 I.C.J. 161 (Nov. 6), Oil Platforms: Iran vs. United States Judgement, 6 November 2003, Paragraph 58.
74.
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75.
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76.
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77.
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78.
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79.
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80.
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81.
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82.
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83.
Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), http://sn4hr.org, (accessed 11.05.2019).
84.
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87.
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88.
A/HRC/RES/S-17/1, Resolution adopted by the Human Rights Council at its seventeenth special session. S-17/1 “Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic” (2011), Paragraph 13, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/ResS17_1.pdf, (accessed 16.05.2019).
89.
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90.
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91.
UNGA A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (2011), Paragraph 10, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/170/97/PDF/G1117097.pdf?OpenElement, (accessed 16.05.2019).
92.
UNGA A/HRC/19/69—2nd Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 8–9, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G12/106/13/PDF/G1210613.pdf?OpenElement, (accessed 17.05.2019).
93.
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94.
UNGA A/HRC/21/50, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 9–11, 2012, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-50_en.pdf, (accessed 16.05.2019).
95.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/21/50, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 46, 2012, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-50_en.pdf, (accessed 16.05.2019).
96.
UNGA A/HRC/22/59, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 6, 7, 8, 86, 90–91, 2013, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A.HRC.22.59_en.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
97.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/22/59, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 7, 2013.
98.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/22/59, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 7, 2013.
99.
UNGA A/HRC/23/58, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 8, 2013, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A-HRC-23-58_en.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019)
See also: UNGA A/HRC/24/46, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 9, 2013, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
100.
UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Annex VI—Paragraph 1–2, 17, 2014, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
101.
UNGA A/HRC/27/60, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 64, pp. 40, 2014, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A.HRC.27.60_Eng.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
102.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Annex VI—Paragraph 4, 2014, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
103.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 158 (a), 2014, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
104.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 42, 2014,
https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
105.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Annex VI—Paragraph 5, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
106.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/25/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 8, 2014, https://www.ohchr.org/en/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/CoIReports.aspx, (accessed 26.09.2019).
107.
UNGA A/HRC/28/69, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 1, 2015.
108.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/28/69, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Annex II, pp. 27, 2015.
109.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/28/69, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 14, 2015.
110.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/28/69, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 94, 2015.
111.
UNGA A/HRC/33/55, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 5, 2016, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/33/55, (accessed 26.09.2019).
112.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/33/55, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 50, 2016, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/33/55, (accessed 26.09.2019).
113.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/33/55, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 50–65, 2016, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/33/55, (accessed 26.09.2019).
114.
UNGA A/HRC/31/68, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 46, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A-HRC-31-68.pdf, (accessed 26.09.2019).
115.
UN web TV, War crimes committed by all parties in battle for Aleppo—UN mandated inquiry on Syria, 1 March 2017, http://webtv.un.org/live/watch/war-crimes-committed-by-all-parties-in-battle-for-aleppo-–-un-mandated-inquiry-on-syria/5343947021001, (accessed 23.09.2019).
116.
UNITAR, Operational Satellite Applications Programme—UNOSAT, https://unitar.org/unosat/, (accessed 26.09.2019)
UNOSAT is a technology-intensive program delivering imagery analysis and satellite solutions to relief and development organizations within and outside the UN system to help make a difference in critical areas such as humanitarian relief, human security, strategic territorial and development planning. UNOSAT develops applied research solutions keeping in sight the needs of the beneficiaries at the end of the process. UNOSAT is UNITAR’s Operational Satellite Applications Programme.
117.
UNITAR, Operational Satellite Applications Programme—UNOSAT, https://unitar.org/unosat/what-we-do, (accessed 23.09.2019).
118.
UNGA A/HRC/34/64, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 85, 2017, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/34/64, (accessed 26.09.2019).
119.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/34/64, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 85, 2017, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/34/64, (accessed 26.09.2019).
120.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/34/64, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 87, 2017, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/34/64, (accessed 26.09.2019).
121.
UNITAR/ UNOSAT, UN/SARC Aid Convoy Damage Assessment Urum al Kubrah Aleppo Governorate, Syria, 19 December 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/UNOSAT_Satellite_Imagery_1.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
122.
UNITAR/UNOSAT, Alleged Aleppo’s hospitals attacks, Damage Assessment, 30 September 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/UNOSAT_Satellite_Imagery_2.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
123.
Ibid. supra note Satellite Imagery 2, pp. 2.
124.
UNGA A/HRC/39/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 23, 2018, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/39/65, (accessed 26.09.2019).
125.
UNGA A/HRC/39/65, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 23, 2018, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/39/65, (accessed 26.09.2019).
126.
UNGA A/HRC/40/70, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A_HRC_40_70.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
127.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/40/70, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 48, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A_HRC_40_70.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
128.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/19/69, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 127, pp.22, 2012, https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/19/69, (accessed 26.09.2019).
129.
Ibid. supra note UNGA A/HRC/40/70, Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Paragraph 7, pp. 14, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A_HRC_40_70.pdf, (accessed 23.09.2019).
130.
UN General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137; Article 1, (A) (2), https://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10, (accessed 18.05.2019).
131.
Source UNHCR, https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria, (accessed 18.05.2019).
132.
UNHCR—UN Refugee Agency, Global trends: Forced Displacement in 2017, https://www.unhcr.org/5b27be547.pdf, (accessed 18.05.2019).
133.
IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, (2019) Figure 5. http://www.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/2019-IDMC-GRID.pdf, (accessed 19.05.2019).
134.
UNHCR, Syria January–March 2019 operational update, 2019, https://www.unhcr.org/sy/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2019/05/Operational-update-2019-Q1.pdf, (accessed 18.05.2019).
135.
UNHCR, Risk analysis and monitoring—refugee emergencies, https://emergency.unhcr.org/entry/252070/risk-analysis-and-monitoring-refugee-emergencies, (accessed 18.05.2019).
136.
Ibid. supra note. UNHCR—UN Refugee Agency, Global trends: Forced Displacement in 2017, Chapter 8 Demographic and Location Data pp. 57, https://www.unhcr.org/5b27be547.pdf, (accessed 18.05.2019).
137.
Checchi, F., Stewart, B.T., Palmer, J.J., Grundy, C., Validity and feasibility of a satellite imagery-based method for rapid estimation of displaced populations, 23 January 2013, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3558435/, (accessed 23.09.2019).
138.
OHCHR, Questions and Answers about Internally Displaced Persons, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IDPersons/Pages/Issues.aspx, (accessed 18.05.2019).
139.
Ibid. supra note IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, pp. iv, 2019.
140.
IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, pp. 25, 2019, http://www.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/2019-IDMC-GRID.pdf, (accessed 19.05.2019).
141.
IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, pp. 26, 2019.
142.
Ibid. supra note IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, (2019), pp. 27.
143.
Ibid. supra note IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, (2019), pp. 21.
144.
Ibid. supra note IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, (2019), pp. 22.
145.
Ibid. supra note IDMC—Internal displacement monitoring centre, Norwegian Refugee Council. GRID 2019, Global Report on Internal Displacement, (2019), pp. 129.
146.
Wendt, L., Lang, S., Rogenhofer, E., Monitoring of Refugee and Camps for Internally Displaced Persons Using Sentinel-2 Imagery—A Feasibility Study, January 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318075028_Monitoring_of_Refugee_and_Camps_for_Internally_Displaced_Persons_Using_Sentinel-2_Imagery_-_A_Feasibility_Study, (accessed 23.09.2019).
147.
UNHCR, Monitoring and evaluation, 01 January 2001, https://www.unhcr.org/protection/environment/3b03d9a94/monitoring-evaluation.html, (accessed 18.05.2019).
148.
Wheeler, J., People Watching: Tracking and Monitoring Migration, http://earsc.org/news/people-watching-tracking-and-monitoring-migration, (accessed 18.05.2019).
149.
Ibid. supra note Wheeler, J., People Watching: Tracking and Monitoring Migration.
150.
Executive Committee 38th Session, Military or Armed Attacks on Refugee Camps and Settlements No. 48 (XXXVIII)—1987, https://www.unhcr.org/excom/exconc/3ae68c951c/military-armed-attacks-refugee-camps-settlements.html, (accessed 8.08.2019).
151.
Zapata, M., Escalating Crisis in Sudan: Satellite Imagery Shows Increased SAF Air Capacity, Refugee Camp Attacks, 14 November 2011, https://enoughproject.org/blog/escalating-crisis-sudan-refugee-camp-attacks-and-satellite-imagery-showing-increased-saf-air, (accessed 23.09.2019).
152.
Stubley, P., At least 42 killed in attack on refugee base in Central African Republic, 17 November 2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/attack-refugee-camp-militia-central-african-republic-alindao-seleka-anti-balaka-a8639206.html, (accessed 8.08.2019).
153.
Andone, D., Ten UN peacekeepers killed in attack in Mali, 21 January 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/01/20/africa/un-peacekeepers-killed-mali/index.html, (accessed 8.08.2019).
154.
Dicko, D., UN News, Guterres condemns armed attack against UN peacekeepers in Mali, 20 May 2019, https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/05/1038761, (accessed 8.08.2019).
155.
RFI, Amnesty slams UN mission in CAR over attack on IDP camp, 20 December 2018, http://en.rfi.fr/africa/20181218-amnesty-UN-minusca-investigation-attack-CAR-idp-camp-seleka-balaka, (accessed 08.08.2019).
156.
Banco, E., Latest Satellite Imagery Captures Expansion of Syrian IDP Camps on Turkish Border, 2 September 2016, https://medium.com/planet-stories/latests-satellite-imagery-captures-expansion-of-syrian-idp-camps-on-turkish-border-383634ecfdf5, (accessed 08.08.2019).
157.
Fryberg, M., Kenya terror attack suspects traced to Dadaab refugee camp, 4 February 2019, https://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/kenya-terror-attack-suspects-traced-to-dadaab-refugee-camp-19120342, (accessed 08.08.2019).
158.
Grassi, S., United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Countering Illicit Arms Trafficking and its Links to Terrorism and Other Serious Crime. UNODC’s Global Firearms Programme, 17 May 2017, https://www.un.org/sc/ctc/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Simonetta-UNODC-at-CTED_May2017v2.pdf, (accessed 24.05.2019).
159.
Schroeder, M., Lamb, G. The Illicit Arms Trade in Africa: A Global Enterprise. In African analyst, pp. 71, July 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326462123_The_Illicit_Arms_Trade_in_Africa_A_Global_Enterprise, (accessed 24.05.2019).
160.
Ibid. supra note Schroeder, M., Lamb, G. The Illicit Arms Trade in Africa: A Global Enterprise. In African analyst, pp. 71, July 2018.
161.
Wezeman, P., International arms flows: monitoring, sources and obstacles. Clingendael Report, January 2018, https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/2018-01/Report_International_Arms_Flows.pdf, (accessed 24.05.2019).
162.
Ibid. supra note Wezeman, P., International arms flows: monitoring, sources and obstacles. Clingendael Report, January 2018, pp. 7.
163.
Ibid. supra note Wezeman, P., International arms flows: monitoring, sources and obstacles. Clingendael Report, January 2018, pp. 14.
164.
UN Security Council, S/RES/1519 2003), Resolution 1519 (2003) Adopted by the Security Council at its 4885th meeting, Paragraph 2, pp. 2, 16 December 2003, http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/1519, (accessed 26.09.2019).
(a) To investigate the violations of the arms embargo covering access to Somalia by land, air and sea;
(b) To detail information and make specific recommendations in relevant areas of expertise related to violations and measures to give effect to and strengthen the implementation of the arms embargo in its various aspects;
(c) To carry out field-based investigations in Somalia, where possible, and in States neighbouring Somalia and other States, as appropriate;
(d) To assess the progress made by the States in the region to implement fully the arms embargo, including through a review of national customs and border control regimes;
(e) To provide the Committee in its final report with a draft list of those who continue to violate the arms embargo inside and outside Somalia, and their active supporters, for possible future measures by the Council;
(f) To make recommendations based on its investigations and the previous reports of the Panel of Experts (S/2003/223 and S/2003/1035) appointed pursuant to resolutions 1425 (2002) and 1474 (2003).
165.
UN Security Council S/2004/604, (2004) “Report or the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1519 (2003)”, Paragraph 24.
166.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2004/604, (2004) “Report or the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1519 (2003)”, Paragraph 36:
(a) Collection of information on events and topics from multiple sources where possible;
(b) Collection of information from sources with first-hand or quasi-first-hand knowledge of events;
(c) Looking for the consistency of the patterns of information and comparing them with new information;
(d) Looking at the totality of the information obtained on issues, topics and events and developing a mosaic of the information. Determining how the new information compares with the substance, tone and feel of the information already collected;
(e) Continuously factoring in the expertise and judgement of the relevant expert of the Group and the collective assessment of the Group;
(f) Continuously seeking out documentary support of the information collected.
167.
United Nations Security Council, Reports Panel of Experts, Somalia Sanctions Committee, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/751/work-and-mandate/reports, (accessed 23.09.2019).
168.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2004/604, Report or the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1519 (2003), Paragraph 64, 2004.
169.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2004/604, Report or the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1519 (2003), Paragraph 65, 2004.
170.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2004/604, Report or the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1519 (2003), Paragraph 66, 2004.
171.
UN Security Council S/2005/153, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1558 (2004), Paragraphs 9–10, 2005.
172.
UN Security Council S/2005/153, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1558 (2004), Paragraph 6, 2005.
173.
UN Security Council S/2005/153, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1558 (2004), Paragraphs 12-14, 2005.
174.
UN Security Council S/2005/153, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1558 (2004), Annex 1, Paragraph 3 (a) (b), 2005:
(a) Source circles. Deliberate and systematic effort to gain access to those involved in arms embargo violations by way of individuals who have direct knowledge or know people who have direct knowledge of details of violations;
(b) Case study model. The case study model is specific arms shipment/ transaction based. It is a tool that helped the Monitoring Group to systemize and standardize its investigative work and includes optimum questions that attempt to answer essential elements of information for all shipments investigated by the Monitoring Group.
175.
UN Security Council S/2005/625, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1587 (2005), Paragraph 100–105, 2005.
176.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2005/625, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1587 (2005), Paragraph 14, 2005.
177.
UN Security Council S/2006/229, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1630 (2005), Paragraph 137–138, 2006.
178.
UN Security Council S/2006/913, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1630 (2005), Paragraphs 235–236, 2006.
179.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2006/913, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1630 (2005), Paragraph 238, 2006.
180.
UN Security Council S/2007/436, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1724 (2006), Paragraph 10, 2007, https://www.undocs.org/S/2007/436, (accessed 26.05.2019).
181.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2007/436, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1724 (2006), Paragraph 120 (c), 2007.
182.
UN Security Council S/2008/274, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1766 (2006), pp. 6, 2008, https://www.undocs.org/S/2008/274, (accessed 26.05.2019).
183.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2008/274, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1766 (2006), pp. 6, 2008.
184.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2008/274, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1766 (2006), pp. 44, Paragraphs 217–222, 2008.
185.
UN Security Council S/2008/274, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1766 (2006), pp. 6, 2008.
186.
UN Security Council S/2010/91, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1853 (2008), pp. 6–7, 2010, https://www.undocs.org/S/2010/91, (accessed 26.05.2019).
187.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2010/91, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1853 (2008), Paragraph 10, 2010.
188.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2010/91, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1853 (2008), Paragraph 67 and 148, 2010.
189.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2010/91, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia submitted in accordance with resolution 1853 (2008), Paragraph 155–157, 2010.
190.
UN Security Council S/2011/433, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2002 (2011), Paragraph 10–11, 2011.
191.
UN Security Council S/2011/433, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2002 (2011), Paragraphs 158, 2011.
192.
UN Security Council S/2012/544, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2002 (2011), Paragraphs 1–7, 2012.
193.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2012/544, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2002 (2011), pp. 311, 2012.
194.
UN Security Council S/2013/413, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2060 (2012), Paragraph 13–14, 2013, https://www.undocs.org/S/2013/413, (accessed 26.05.2019).
195.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2013/413, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2060 (2012), Paragraphs 13–14, 2013.
196.
UN Security Council S/2014/726, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2111 (2013), Paragraphs 38–39, 2014, https://www.undocs.org/S/2014/726, (accessed 26.05.2019).
197.
UN Security Council S/2014/726, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2111 (2013), Paragraphs 5-9, 18, 22, Annex 9.1 and Paragraph 24-31 Annex 9.1.a and Paragraph 32-27 Annex 9.1.b, 2014.
198.
UN Security Council S/2015/801, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2182 (2014), Paragraphs 150–151, 2015, https://www.undocs.org/S/2015/801, (accessed 26.05.2019).
199.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2015/801, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2182 (2014), Paragraph 30, 2015.
200.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2015/801, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2182 (2014), Paragraph 13 Annex 4.2, pp. 189, 2015.
201.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2015/801, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2182 (2014), Paragraph 1 Annex 8.1, pp. 300, 2015.
202.
UN Security Council S/2016/919, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2244 (2015), Paragraph 94, 2016, https://www.undocs.org/S/2016/919, (accessed 26.05.2019).
203.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2016/919, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2244 (2015), Paragraphs 130–131, 2016.
204.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2016/919, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2244 (2015), Paragraphs 43, Annex 4.6, 2016.
205.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2016/919, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2244 (2015), Paragraph 49, pp. 125, 2016.
206.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2016/919, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2244 (2015), Annex 8.9, 2016.
207.
UN Security Council S/2017/924*, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2317 (2016), Para. 148–149, pp. 36/179, 2017. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/751/work-and-mandate/reports, (accessed 25.05.2019).
208.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2017/924*, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2317 (2016), Paragraph 203–2015, pp. 46/179, 2017.
209.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2017/924*, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2317 (2016), Annex 1.3., pp. 57/179, 2017.
210.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2017/924*, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2317 (2016), pp. 10/179, 2017.
211.
UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), Paragraph 6, 2018.
212.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), Paragraph 41–43, 2018.
213.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), Paragraph 170, 2018.
214.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), pp. 75/156, 2018.
215.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Source: UNMAS Somalia (2017) “Report on the VBIED Attacks in Mogadishu on 14 October 2017” pp. 76.
216.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), pp. 77, 2018.
217.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), pp. 87, 2018.
218.
Ibid. supra note UN Security Council S/2018/1002, Somalia Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea submitted in accordance with resolution 2385 (2017), Paragraphs 155–157, 2018.
219.
A/HRC/RES/37/31 Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in South Sudan, 13 April 2018, https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/a_hrc_res_37_31.pdf, (accessed 24.09.2019).
220.
A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoHSouthSudan/Pages/Index.aspx, (accessed 01.06.2019).
221.
A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 62, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoHSouthSudan/Pages/Index.aspx, (accessed 01.06.2019).
222.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 13, 2019.
223.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 8, 2019.
224.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 11, 2019.
225.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 71, 2019.
226.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69 Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 36, 2019.
227.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/69, Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 88, 2019.
228.
UN Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan News, Outraged by renewed fighting and continuing human rights violations in South Sudan, UN Human Rights Experts urge all parties to stop conflict, end impunity and respect provisions of the revitalized peace agreement, 20 February 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=24183&LangID=E, (accessed 04.06.2019).
229.
Ibid. supra note UN Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan News, 20 February 2019.
230.
A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 17, 2019, https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/HRC/40/CRP.1, (accessed 01.06.2019).
231.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 715, 2019 https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/HRC/40/CRP.1, (accessed 01.06.2019).
232.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 717, 2019, “In April alone, 7,000 people were displaced in and around Koch town. In May, 40,000 people were reported to have been displaced in Leer County, out of a total population of approximately 80,000. This, at a time when the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification system predicted over 70 percent of Unity State to be at Crisis, Emergency or Catastrophe (Phase 3-5) levels of food insecurity”.
233.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 36, 2019.
234.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 815, 2019.
235.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 32, 2019.
236.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 14 and examples at Paragraphs 854, 855, 864, 2019.
237.
Ibid. supra note A/HRC/40/CRP.1, CRP on the Report of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, Paragraph 13, 2019.
238.
Prosecuting Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes in South Sudan: working session on strategies for evidence collection, Addis Ababa 4–5 March, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoHSouthSudan/Pages/Index.aspx, (accessed 04.06.2019).
239.
Chedin, A., Chahine, M.T., Scott, N.A., High Spectral Resolution Infrared Remote Sensing for Earth’s Weather and Climate Studies, pp. VI, Springer, 1993.
240.
EUMETSAT, Climate services need to be developed to meet the challenge of mitigating and adapting to climate change, https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/AboutUs/WhatWeDo/MonitoringClimate/index.html, (accessed 10.08.2019).
241.
Ibid. supra note EUMETSAT, Climate services need to be developed to meet the challenge of mitigating and adapting to climate change. https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/AboutUs/WhatWeDo/MonitoringClimate/index.html, (accessed 24.09.2019).
242.
EUMETSAT supports the development of operational oceanography through the delivery of ocean data to its Member States, the Copernicus marine service, and users worldwide, https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/AboutUs/WhatWeDo/MonitoringOceans/index.html, (accessed 24.09.2019).
243.
Observations of EUMETSAT satellites are critical inputs to monitoring and forecasts of air quality, which are increasingly important for the health of European citizens, https://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/AboutUs/WhatWeDo/AtmosphericComposition/index.html, (accessed 24.09.2019).
244.
Calle, A., Casanova, J.L., Ozone in the Atmosphere, in Chuvieco, E. (Eds.), Earth Observation of Global Change, The Role of Satellite Remote Sensing in Monitoring the Global Environment, pp. 59–84, Springer Netherlands, 2008.
245.
Ibid. supra note Calle, A., Casanova, J.L., Ozone in the Atmosphere, in Chuvieco, E. (Eds.), Earth Observation of Global Change, The Role of Satellite Remote Sensing in Monitoring the Global Environment, pp. 59–84, Springer Netherlands, 2008.

since 1978 sensor TOMS, originally on-board Nimbus-7 and later on satellites like the Russian Meteor-3 or the Japanese Adeos, has been the one mostly used for analyses on a large scale completing measurement series. The NOAA series satellites also include a sensor called HIRS with an infrared band centred in an ozone absorption peak at 9.6 μm. This band has been included in the current MODIS sensor and in the European geostationary MSG. GOME sensor of the European satellite ERS has been very important in the continuation of data series and, at this moment, we should mention the relevance of the European satellite ENVISAT, which carries GOMOS (Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars) among other sensors. GOMOS is able to generate stratospheric ozone profiles with a high accuracy above 15 km from the measurement of a stellar spectrum when it is visualised from the space through the earth’s atmosphere.
246.
Copernicus, https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/space/copernicus_en, (accessed 24.09.2019).
247.
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256.
ESA, WASTE IAP—Space based Support Services for Waste Management, Feasibility Study, 23 July 2018, https://business.esa.int/projects/waste-iap (accessed 18.08.2019).
Earth Observation data for monitoring:
Change detection routines are applied using multitemporal SAR data to identify potential sites where illegal waste tipping is occurring.
Optical data is used to both identify illegal waste sites and to validate the sites identified in the SAR data.
GNSS for Tracking:
Tracking devices using the location information from GNSS satellites inform when a waste consignment may be routed from its intended destination to an illegal dumping site
By combining this information with vehicle tracking, a full picture of unexpected behavior in the lifecycle of waste disposal is provided.
257.
AHRC—Arts & Humanities Research Council, Satellite Monitoring as a Legal Compliance Tool in the Environment Sector, Case Study Two: The Disposal of Waste on Land and Remote Sensing, Chapter 3 to Chapter 4, http://www.envirosecurity.org/helf/UCL%20Case%20Study%20on%20Waste%20Monitoring.pdf (accessed 18.08.2019).
258.
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259.
Ibid. supra note AHRC—Arts & Humanities Research Council, Satellite Monitoring as a Legal Compliance Tool in the Environment Sector, Case Study Two: The Disposal of Waste on Land and Remote Sensing, chapter 3 to 4,
http://www.envirosecurity.org/helf/UCL%20Case%20Study%20on%20Waste%20Monitoring.pdf, (accessed 24.09.2019).
260.
Geocento, Oil Spill Monitoring, Satellites help to track the extent and spread of oil spills, https://geocento.com/satellite-imagery-case-studies/radar-imaging-satellites-for-oil-spills/, (accessed 19.08.2019).
261.
Loss Prevention Briefing, Bilge Water Management, http://www.nepia.com/media/869523/Bilge-Water-Management-LP-Briefing.PDF, (accessed 19.08.2019).
262.
Ibid. supra note Geocento, Oil Spill Monitoring, Satellites help to track the extent and spread of oil spills, https://geocento.com/satellite-imagery-case-studies/radar-imaging-satellites-for-oil-spills/, (accessed 24.09.2019).
263.
Crisp, W., Ships dumping noxious palm oil off British coast without legal consequences, The Telegraph, 3 February 2018, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/02/03/ships-dumping-noxious-palm-oil-british-coast-without-legal-consequences/, (accessed 19.07.2019).
264.
LeighDay, London High Court rules that Shell Nigeria could be legally liable for bunkering, 20 June 2014, https://www.leighday.co.uk/News/2014/June-2014/London-High-Court-rules-that-Shell-Nigeria-could-b, (accessed 20.08.2019).
265.
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ESA, Earth Online Sample Data, https://earth.esa.int/web/guest/data-access/sample-data/-/asset_publisher/tg8V/content/prestige-oil-spill-galicia-spain-1623?p_r_p_564233524_assetIdentifie, (accessed 19.08.2019).
268.
Liu, Y., Sun, C., Sun, J., Li, H., Zhan, W., Yang, Y., Zhang, S., Satellite data lift the veil on offshore platforms in the South China Sea. Scientific Reports, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep33623, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308365780_Satellite_data_lift_the_veil_on_offshore_platforms_in_the_South_China_Sea, (accessed 22.05.2019).
269.
Singh, B., Different Types of Offshore Oil and Gas Production Structures, 5 August 2019, https://www.marineinsight.com/offshore/different-types-of-offshore-oil-and-gas-production-structures/, (accessed 22.05.2019).
270.
Hall, M., Airbus Defence and Space. Enhanced satellite imagery supports offshore oil spill, security monitoring, 5 February 2016, https://www.offshore-mag.com/production/article/16754876/enhanced-satellite-imagery-supports-offshore-oil-spill-security-monitoring, (accessed 22.05.2019).
271.
Ibid. supra note Hall, M., Airbus Defence and Space, 2016.
272.
Ibid. supra note Hall M., Airbus Defence and Space, 2016.
273.
Hall, M., Supporting Exploration with Satellite Imaging Technology, in Airbus News, 2017, http://www.airbusds-ogm.com/news/supporting-exploration-with-satellite-imaging-technology, (accessed 22.05.2019).
274.
Ibid. supra note Hall, M., Supporting Exploration with Satellite Imaging Technology, in Airbus News, 2017, http://www.airbusds-ogm.com/news/supporting-exploration-with-satellite-imaging-technology/, (accessed 22.05.2019).
275.
Barnes, M., High Resolution Satellite Imagery Applied to Oil and Gas Projects, 2005 SEG Conference—Special Session, https://www.apsg.info/resources/Presentations/Misc/2005SEGConference_2005.11_MichaelBarnes_HighResolutionSatelliteImaging_OilandGas.pdf, (accessed 19.07.2019).
276.
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277.
International Charter Space & Major Disasters, Oil Spills, https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/disaster-types/-/article/oil-spills, (accessed 26.09.2019).
Oil spills occur when petroleum oil is released into the ocean following accidents, such as vessels crashing or damage and problems with oil platforms and drilling. They can have devastating effects on the environment, affecting marine and coastal ecologies, and are not easy to remove. The ocean tide, currents and weather affect the movement of oil spills, making them unpredictable. Radar data is typically used to detect oil spills with satellites, but it can be very difficult to locate oil spills as looking for relatively small patches of oil in vast oceans is a challenge. Identifying oil is also difficult, as a dark patch on the ocean may be from the event in question, or a natural release of oil or different substance altogether. Once a particular oil spill that needs to be monitored is identified, however, satellites can play a useful role in noting the source, mapping the extent and tracking the direction the spill may take.
278.
International Charter “Space & Major Disasters”, 2017 Annual Report, pp. 22, 2018, https://disasterscharter.org/documents/10180/14622/17th+Annual+Report.pdf, (accessed 20.08.2019).
279.
Council Regulation (EC) No 1005/2008 of 29 September 2008 establishing a Community system to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, OJ 286, 29.10.2008, pp. 1–32, http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2008/1005/oj, (accessed 26.09.2019).
Article 3 of the IUU Regulation:
(a) fished without a valid license, authorization or permit issued by the flag State or the relevant coastal State; or
(b) not fulfilled its obligations to record and report catch or catch-related data, including data to be transmitted by satellite vessel monitoring system, or prior notices under Article 6; or
(c) fished in a closed area, during a closed season, without or after attainment of a quota or beyond a closed depth; or
(d) engaged in directed fishing for a stock which is subject to a moratorium or for which fishing is prohibited; or
(e) used prohibited or non-compliant fishing gear; or
(f) falsified or concealed its markings, identity or registration; or
(g) concealed, tampered with or disposed of evidence relating to an investigation; or
(h) obstructed the work of officials in the exercise of their duties in inspecting for compliance with the applicable conservation and management measures; or the work of observers in the exercise of their duties of observing compliance with the applicable Community rules; or
(i) taken on board, transshipped or landed undersized fish in contravention of the legislation in force; or
(j) transshipped or participated in joint fishing operations with, supported or re- supplied other fishing vessels identified as having engaged in IUU fishing under this Regulation, in particular those included in the Community IUU vessel list or in the IUU vessel list of a regional fisheries management organization; or
(k) carried out fishing activities in the area of a regional fisheries management organization in a manner inconsistent with or in contravention of the conservation and management measures of that organization and is flagged to a State not party to that organization, or not cooperating with that organization as established by that organization; or
(l) no nationality and is therefore a stateless vessel, in accordance with international law.
280.
Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Policy Department Structural and Cohesion Policies “Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing: Sanctions in the EU” Study 2014, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2014/529069/IPOL_STU(2014)529069_EN.pdf, (accessed 5.08.2019).
281.
Ship Technology, Transparent transshipping: detecting illegal fishing with satellite data, 20 August 2018, https://www.ship-technology.com/features/global-fishing-watch/, (accessed 5.08.2019).
282.
Angling Trust, Stamping Out Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated fishing in UK, https://www.anglingtrust.net/page.asp?section=1167&sectionTitle=STAMPING+OUT+ILLEGAL%2C+UNREPORTED+%26+UNREGULATED+FISHING+IN+UK, (accessed 24.09.2019).
283.
Imagesat International, Using Satellite Imagery to Combat Illegal Fishing, 17 July 2017, https://www.maritime-executive.com/blog/using-satellite-imagery-to-combat-illegal-fishing, (accessed 24.09.2019).
284.
Ship Technology, Transparent transshipping: detecting illegal fishing with satellite data, 20 August 2018, https://www.ship-technology.com/features/global-fishing-watch/, (accessed 24.09.2019).
285.
Thornton, A., How AI and satellites are used to combat illegal fishing, 6 June 2019, https://news.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2019/06/06/ocean-mind-illegal-fishing/, (accessed 24.09.2019).
286.
OceanMind’s system currently tracks thousands of boats, with the capability of tracking millions, across the globe by gathering data from a wide range of sources, including collision-avoidance transponders aboard boats; radar images; satellite imagery; and cellphone signals. Analyzing these enormous datasets is beyond the capability of any one person. OceanMind has developed machine-learning algorithms that predict the type of fishing behavior based on vessel location, and flags suspicious and potentially illegal activity such as fishing too close to the shore.
287.
Geocento, Ship detection from space, Satellite Imagery helps to monitor the seven seas, https://geocento.com/satellite-imagery-case-studies/satellite-imagery-can-help-on-maritime-surveillance/, (accessed 19.08.2019).
288.
Bladen, S., The capture of the MV Nika: A case of illicit fishing and a showcase for how to beat it, 23 July 2019, https://globalfishingwatch.org/vms-transparency/the-capture-of-the-mv-nika-a-case-of-illicit-fishing-and-a-showcase-for-how-to-beat-it/, (accessed 16.08.2019).
289.
Ibid. supra note Bladen, S., The capture of the MV Nika: A case of illicit fishing and a showcase for how to beat it, 23 July 2019.
290.
Global Fishing Watch, The Global Fishing Watch Map, https://globalfishingwatch.org/our-map/, (accessed 24.09.2019).
291.
Ibid. supra note Global Fishing Watch, The Global Fishing Watch Map, https://globalfishingwatch.org/our-map/, (accessed 24.09.2019).
292.
Ibid. supra note Imagesat International, Using Satellite Imagery to Combat Illegal Fishing, 17 July 2017, https://www.maritime-executive.com/blog/using-satellite-imagery-to-combat-illegal-fishing, (accessed 24.09.2019).
293.
Ibid. supra note Imagesat International, Using Satellite Imagery to Combat Illegal Fishing, 17 July 2017, https://www.maritime-executive.com/blog/using-satellite-imagery-to-combat-illegal-fishing, (accessed 24.09.2019).
294.
Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela, with 60% of the rainforest area falling under the Brazilian territory.
295.
Humans worldwide are estimated emit about 32 billion tons of carbon dioxide each year but just less than half of this, about 15 billion tons, remains in the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed by natural carbon sinks in the ocean and on land. Scientists have calculated that the world's tropical forests collectively absorb about 4.8 billion tons of carbon dioxide every year, with the Amazon being the single biggest rainforest sink. Amazonia alone is estimated to store about 100 billion tons of carbon locked up in its trees.
296.
Connor, S., Revenge of the rainforest, 06 March 2019, https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/revenge-of-the-rainforest-1638524.html, (accessed 11.08.2019).
297.
Brienen, R.J.W, Philips, O.L., et al. Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink, Nature, 19 March 2015, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14283, (accessed 24.09.2019).
298.
Ibid. supra note Connor, S., Revenge of the rainforest, 06 March 2019, https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/revenge-of-the-rainforest-1638524.html, (accessed 11.08.2019).
299.
Amorim, C., Trees in tropical rainforest are dying faster, 01.06.2018, https://ipam.org.br/trees-in-tropical-rainforests-are-dying-faster/, (accessed 25.08.2019).
300.
NASA Earth Observatory, In the past three decades, clearing and degradation of the state’s forests have been rapid: 4,200 square kilometers cleared by 1978; 30,000 by 1988; and 53,300 by 1998. By 2003, an estimated 67,764 square kilometers of rainforest—an area larger than the state of West Virginia—had been cleared. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/Deforestation, (accessed 24.09.2019).
301.
Watts, J., Amazon deforestation accelerating towards unrecoverable “tipping point”, The Guardian, 25 July 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/25/amazonian-rainforest-near-unrecoverable-tipping-point, (accessed 17.08.2019).
302.
Kehl, T.N., Todt, V., Veronez, M.R., Cazella, S.C., Real time deforestation detection using ANN and Satellite images—The Amazon Rainforest study case, pp. 3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15741-2, Springer, Cham, 2015.
303.
Ibid. supra note Kehl, T.N., Todt, V., Veronez, M.R., Cazella, S.C., Real time deforestation detection using ANN and Satellite images—The Amazon Rainforest study case, pp. 9.
304.
Ibid. supra note Kehl, T.N., Todt, V., Veronez, M.R., Cazella, S.C., Real time deforestation detection using ANN and Satellite images—The Amazon Rainforest study case, pp. 18.
305.
Langton, K., Amazon fires satellite image: Devastating Brazil rainforest fire burning at “record rate”, 28 August 2019, https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1168303/amazon-fires-satellite-image-amazon-rainforest-wildfires-inpe-brazil-space-agency, (accessed 24.09.2019).
306.
Gohd, C., As Fires Devastate the Amazon Rainforest, NASA Satellites Capture Grim Images, 23 August 2019, https://www.space.com/amazon-rainforest-fires-nasa-satellite-images.html, (accessed 25.08.2019).
307.
Butler, R.A., Satellite images from Planet reveal devastating Amazon fires in near real-time, 22 August 2019, https://news.mongabay.com/2019/08/satellite-images-from-planet-reveal-devastating-amazon-fires-in-near-real-time/, (accessed 25.08.2019).

If you took all of the carbon stored in every tropical forest on Earth and burned it up, you would emit about five times the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere that is already there. The Amazon rainforest represents about half of this forest carbon to give you an idea of how serious this current situation is and the kind of impact it will have on climate change.
308.
Silveiro, D., Silva, S., Alencar, A., Moutinho, P., Amazon on fire: Technical note from the Amazon environmental Research Institute—IPAM, 2019, https://ipam.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/NT-Fogo-Amazônia-2019_English_v2.pdf, (accessed 25.08.2019).
309.
IPAM, Deforestation, not the dry season, responsible for Amazon burning in 2019, 23 August 2019, https://ipam.org.br/deforestation-not-the-dry-season-responsible-for-amazon-burning-in-2019/, (accessed 25.08.2019).

There are no natural fires in the Amazon. There are, however, people who light fires, which can worsen and turn into wildfires during the dry season,” explains IPAM Science Director Ane Alencar, one of the authors of the memo. “Even in a less severe drought than in 2016, when we suffered from a very strong El Niño effect, the risk of fires growing out of control is high.
310.
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme, Manual on Compliance with and Enforcement of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, pp. 59, 2006, https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/7458/-Manual%20on%20Compliance%20with%20and%20Enforcement%20of%20Multilateral%20Environmental%20Agreements-2006743.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y, (accessed 24.09.2019).
311.
Annette Froehlich, “Space Related Data: From Justice to Development,” IAC 2011 (IAC-11. E7.3.1) at 5.
312.
Yahya A. Dehqanzada and Ann M. Florini, “Secrets for Sale: How Commercial Satellite Imagery Will Change the World,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2000) at 11.
313.
Ridderhof, R., Satellite Data in International Law, Peace Palace Library, https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2017/08/satellite-data-in-international-law/ (accessed 05.06.2019).
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Edwards, S., Koettl, C., Looking to the Sky: Monitoring Human Rights through Remote Sensing, Harvard International Review, 32 (4), pp. 66-71, 2011.
315.
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316.
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317.
Sherninin, A., Giri, C., Remote Sensing in Support of Multilateral Environmental Agreements: What Have We Learned from Pilot Applications? Open Meeting of the Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Research Community, Rio de Janerio, 6-8 October 2001, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228792200_Remote_Sensing_in_Support_of_Multilateral_Environmental_Agreements_What_Have_We_Learned_from_Pilot_Applications, (accessed 5.06.2019).
318.
Ibid. supra note Sherninin, A., Giri, C., Remote Sensing in Support of Multilateral Environmental Agreements: What Have We Learned from Pilot Applications?
319.
Abbot, C., Enforcing Pollution Control Regulation, Strengthening Sanctions and Improving Deterrence, Hart Publishing, Oxford, pp. 1, 2009.
320.
Hettling, J.K., The Use of Remote Sensing Satellites for Verification in International Law, Space Policy 19, pp. 33, 2003.
321.
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322.
Bothe, Verification of Facts, Encyclopedia of Public International Law IV, pp. 1268, 2002.
323.
Ibid. supra note Hettling, J.K., The Use of Remote Sensing Satellites for Verification in International Law, Space Policy 19, pp. 37.
324.
Zaelke, D., Kaniaru, D., Kružiková, E., Making Law Work: Environmental Compliance and Sustainable Development, Vol. 1 and 2, Cameron May, London, 2005.
325.
Purdy, R., Using Earth Observation Technologies for Better Regulatory Compliance and Enforcement of Environmental Law, Journal of Environmental law 22:1, pp. 64, 2010.
326.
Mullins, F., Kyoto Mechanism, Monitoring and Compliance—From Kyoto to The Hague, OECD Environment Directorate and International Energy Agency, COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT 9, pp. 36, 2001.
327.
UNECE, Environmental Monitoring, https://www.unece.org/environmental-policy/environmental-monitoring-and-assessment/areas-of-work/environmental-monitoring.html, (accessed 06.07.2019).
328.
Ibid. supra note Marx, A., Goward, S.N., Remote Sensing in Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Monitoring: Concepts and Methods, The Geographical Review, 103(1), pp. 100, 2013.
329.
AAAS, SRHRL Past Projects: Remote Sensing for Human Rights, https://www.aaas.org/programs/scientific-responsibility-human-rights-law/past-projects/remote-sensing-human-rights, (accessed 10.07.2019).
330.
Pierro, R., Satellite Imagery for Human Rights Monitoring, The Engine Room Library, https://library.theengineroom.org/satellite-imagery-human-rights/#introduction, (accessed 09.07.2019).
331.
Schneiderbauer, S., Monitoring Multilateral Humanitarian Agreements, In: Wirkus, L., Vollmer, R., Monitoring Environment and Security—Integrating Concepts and Enhancing Methodologies, BICC Seminar Documentation, Brief 37, pp. 47, July 2008, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283321139_Monitoring_Environment_and_Security_-_Integrating_concepts_and_enhancing_methodologies, (accessed 8.07.2019).
332.
Macrory, R., Regulation, Enforcement and Governance in Environmental Law, Cameron May, London, pp. 771, 2008.
333.
Ibid. supra note Marx, A., Goward, S.N., Remote Sensing in Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Monitoring: Concepts and Methods, The Geographical Review, 103 (1).
334.
Ibid. supra note Schneiderbauer, S., Monitoring Multilateral Humanitarian Agreements, in: Wirkus, L., Vollmer, R., Monitoring Environment and Security—Integrating Concepts and Enhancing Methodologies, BICC Seminar Documentation, Brief 37, pp. 50, July 2008.
335.
Peter, N., The Use of Remote Sensing to Support the Application of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Space Policy, 20, pp. 189, 2004.
336.
Ibid. supra note Peter, N., The Use of Remote Sensing to Support the Application of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Space Policy, 20, pp. 190, 2004.
337.
Arino, O., Fernnádez-Prieto, D., Paganini, M., Volden, E., and Seifert, F.M., Earth Observation Supporting Multilateral Environmental Agreements: The Initiatives of the European Space Agency, Proc. IEEE. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS’03), 2003.
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Tenner, Verification Mechanisms in International Environmental Agreements, VERTIC Briefing Paper 99/2, pp. 1, 1999.
339.
Ibid. supra note Arino, O., Fernnádez-Prieto, D., Paganini, M., Volden, E., and Seifert, F.M., Earth Observation Supporting Multilateral Environmental Agreements: The Initiatives of the European Space Agency, Proc. IEEE. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS’03), 2003.
340.
Ibid. supra note Purdy, R., Using Earth Observation Technologies for Better Regulatory Compliance and Enforcement of Environmental Law, Journal of Environmental law 22:1, pp. 64, 2010.
341.
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1782/2003 of 29 September 2003 establishing common rules for direct support schemes under the common agricultural policy and establishing certain support schemes for farmers, OJ L 270, 21.10.2003, pp. 1–69 (ES, DA, DE, EL, EN, FR, IT, NL, PT, FI, SV).
342.
Council Regulation (EC) 2244/2003 of 18 December 2003 laying down detailed provisions regarding satellite-based Vessel Monitoring Systems, OJ L 333, 20.12.2003, pp. 17–27 (ES, DA, DE, EL, EN, FR, IT, NL, PT, FI, SV).
343.
Satellite data has been used as evidence in various cases including:
- Territorial dispute between Qatar and Bahrain—(1995) ICJ Report 6,
- Land and Maritime Boundary dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria—(2002) ICJ Report 30,3
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344.
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, 1980.
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Joyner, C., Governing the Frozen Commons: The Antarctic Regime and Environmental Protection, University of South Carolina Press, pp. 353, 1998.
346.
There have been multiple instances of oil spillage in the Antarctic which included Argentine Ship Bahia Paraiso spilling 250,000 gallons of diesel in the Antarctic Peninsula, British ship, HMS Endurance spilling oil into the Esperanza Bay after hitting an iceberg, Peruvian vessel BIC Humboldt spilled oil into Fildes Bay and Exxon Valdez spilling 11 million barrels of crude oil off the coast of Alaska. These incidents have led to killing of thousands of flora and fauna including the fishes.
347.
Raustiala, K., Reporting and Review Institutions in 10 Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Nairobi: UNEP, pp.19, 2001.
348.
Mitchell, R., Intentional Oil Pollution at Sea: Environmental Policy and Treaty Compliance, in: Choucri, N., Global Environmental Accord Series, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 199, 1994.
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Under Kyoto Protocol, forest areas must be determined using a spatial resolution no larger than 1 ha, corresponding to a satellite sensor resolution of less than 100 m.
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Niemeyer, I., et al., Treaty Monitoring from Space: Satellite Imagery Analysis for Verifying Treaty Compliance, Conference Paper in Proceedings of SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering, 2009.
352.
Ibid. supra note Peter, N., The Use of Remote Sensing to Support the Application of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Space Policy, 20, pp. 193, 2004.
353.
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European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria
Annette Froehlich
European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria
Claudiu Mihai Tăiatu

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Annette Froehlich
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Claudiu Mihai Tăiatu
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Froehlich, A., Tăiatu, C.M. (2020). Practical Use of Satellite Data in Support of Human Rights. In: Space in Support of Human Rights. Studies in Space Policy, vol 23. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35426-8_2

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35426-8_2
Published: 03 January 2020
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-35425-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-35426-8
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