Abstract
This chapter examines the association of error with foreigners in the ways they misspeak the national language onstage. This is analysed using the term ‘enfranchisement’ from Richard Mulcaster’s Elementarie (1582), where he advances a political theory of linguistic and cultural inclusion for the benefit of the nation state. The treatment of Franceschina in John Marston’s The Dutch Courtesan (1605), where her staged misappropriations of English are ridiculed and she is eventually forcibly exiled, contrasts with the treatment of the French Princess Katherine in Henry V who is assimilated into the English royal court despite her prominent and sometimes loaded linguistic mistakes. Unlike Marston, Shakespeare ‘enfranchises’ the vernacular through a sometimes comic, sometimes dangerous mix of foreign languages with English. In so doing he plays with the dubious characterisation of foreignness as wrongness, using error to challenge an idea of national identity stabilised through linguistic homogeneity.
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Notes
- 1.
Mulcaster, Mulcaster’s Elementarie, ed. E. T. Campagnac (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), pp. 173–174.
- 2.
For a discussion of these issues in Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, see Carla Mazzio, ‘Staging the Vernacular: Language and Nation in Thomas Kyd’s “The Spanish Tragedy”’, Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Spring, 1998), 207–232.
- 3.
While The Dutch Courtesan is little discussed, much important critical attention has fallen on Henry V, especially concerning early modern national identity and its construction. See Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, ‘History and Ideology: The Instance of Henry V’, in Alternative Shakespeares, ed. John Drakakis (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 206–227; Claire McEachern, The Poetics of English Nationhood, 1590–1612 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and David Schalkwyk, ‘Proto-Nationalist Performatives and Trans-Theatrical Displacement in “Henry V”’, in Transnational Exchange in Early Modern Theater, eds. Robert Henke and Eric Nicholson (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 197–214.
- 4.
See also, for example, Thomas Dekker and Thomas Middleton, The Roaring Girl, ed. Paul Mulholland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Dekker, The Shoemaker’s Holiday, ed. Jonathan Gil Harris (London: Methuen Drama, 2008); Dekker, The Second Part of the Honest Whore (London: Nick Hern Books, 1998); and William Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor.
- 5.
Jane Donawerth, Shakespeare and the Sixteenth-Century Study of Language (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1984), p. 31.
- 6.
The ‘nature-convention controversy’ is the discussion of the relation between a word and what it represents. In Plato’s Cratylus the dichotomy between physis ‘nature’ and nomos ‘convention’ is debated. Socrates ends by siding with naturalism. Plato, Cratylus, in The Dialogues of Plato, trans. B. Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1875), Vol. 2. On the other hand, Aristotle firmly adopts a conventionalist point of view: ‘I say “by convention” because no name is a name naturally’. Aristotle, Aristotle’s Categories and De Interpretatione, trans. J. L. Ackrill (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), 16a 26a. See R. H. Robins, A Short History of Linguistics (London: Longman, 1990).
- 7.
This is also M. Mahood and James Calderwood’s opinion on Renaissance beliefs in the origins of language. See M. Mahood, Shakespeare’s Wordplay (London: Methuen, 1968), pp. 169–175; James Calderwood, Metadrama in Shakespeare’s Henriad: Richard II to Henry V (London: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 183–220.
- 8.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 138.
- 9.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 246.
- 10.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 177.
- 11.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, title page.
- 12.
Henri Béjoint describes it as ‘the first true monolingual English dictionary’ in The Lexicography of English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 56. Paula Blank refers to Cawdrey as ‘the first English lexicographer’ in Broken English: Dialects and the Politics of Language in Renaissance Writings (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 1.
- 13.
Other texts in the same category include John Bullokar’s, English Expositor (1616), Henry Cockeram’s, English Dictionary (1623), and Thomas Blount’s, Glossographia (1656).
- 14.
Blank, Broken English, p. 3.
- 15.
Blank, Broken English, p. 29.
- 16.
W. Rothwell, ‘The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-Norman’, Medium Aevum, Vol. 60 (1991), 173–196, p. 174. For more on early modern language links to national identity see Cathy Shrank, Writing the Nation in Reformation England, 1530–1580 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
- 17.
W. Rothwell, ‘The Missing Link in English Etymology’, p. 174.
- 18.
Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesy (1589), p. 120.
- 19.
This echoes Florio’s sentiment, as discussed in Chapter 3.
- 20.
Edmund Coote, The English schoole-maister (London, 1596), p. 204, Sig. Cc3 v. EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 9 March 2018].
- 21.
John Lyly laments the mixing of cultural rather than just linguistic difference. He claims that ‘[t]rafficke and travell hath woven the nature of all Nations into ours, and made this land like Arras, full of devise…Time hath confounded our mindes, our mindes the matter; but all commeth to this passe, that what heretofore hath been served in several dishes for a feaste, is now minced in a charger for a Gallimaufrey. If wee present a mingle mangle, our fault is to be excused, because the whole world is become an Hodge-podge.’ Lyly describes Elizabethan England as a complex mixture that was resistant to interpretation. A sense of concealing and threat is suggested by the ‘Arras’ that the land is concealed behind, beyond the control of native people to observe and know it. John Lyly, The Complete Works of John Lyly, ed. R. W. Bond (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1902), Vol. 3, p. 115.
- 22.
Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesy (1589), p. 121.
- 23.
Thomas Wilson, The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), Fol. 86, r., see EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 29 September 2017].
- 24.
Using foreign words within English speech is the figure of ‘soriasmus’. Puttenham calls this the ‘mingle mangle’: ‘Another of your intollerable vices is that which the Greekes call Soraismus, & we may call the [mingle mangle] as when we make our speach or writinges of sundry languages vsing some Italian word, or French, or Spanish, or Dutch, or Scottish, not for the nonce or for any purpose’. The Arte of English Poesie (1589), p. 211.
- 25.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 287.
- 26.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 172.
- 27.
George Pettie’s address ‘To the Reader’, p. 3, r., in his translation of Stefano Guazzo, The Civile Conversation (1581), see EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 29 September 2018].
- 28.
For more on multivocality in Henry V see Nathalie Vienne-Guerrin, ‘“Couple a Gorge”: La Guerre des Langues dans “Henry V”’, in Langues Dominantes, Langues Dominées (Mont-Saint-Aignan: Publications des Universités de Rouen et du Havre, 2008).
- 29.
Andrew Fleck, ‘“Ick verstaw you niet”: Performing Foreign Tongues on the Early Modern English Stage’, Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England, Vol. 20 (2007), 204–221, p. 208.
- 30.
Mistaken puns occur within English too. Fluellen, the Welsh Officer asks ‘What call you the town’s name where Alexander the Pig was born?’ which Gower corrects, ‘Alexander the Great’ but Fluellen fails to understand the correction: ‘is not “pig” great? The pig, or the great, or the mighty’ (4.7.12–6). Fluellen uses ‘big’ instead of ‘great’ and in so doing inadvertently calls Alexander the Great a pig rather than his intended meaning of ‘magnanimous’. This is one of several moments in the play where the English, Scottish, Irish and Welsh soldiers comically mistake each other.
- 31.
Henry V, first quarto (1600), Sig. C3 v. at http://www.bl.uk/treasures [accessed 29 September 2012].
- 32.
This scene in the First Folio and quartos are considered to be ‘very corrupt’, as Evans and Tobin claim, ‘and Q1-3 are small help’. See The Riverside Shakespeare, p. 1018. This position sometimes forgets that sixteenth century French is being represented. Yet this also places phonetic French as required by performance into the realm of error to be corrected. Where present texts employ modern spelling forms and have been turned into recognisable French, this overlooks the historical record of performance contained in this linguistic jumble.
- 33.
The significance of this scene is not just linguistic and semantic: violence against the nation is enacted on the female body in both Henry V and The Dutch Courtesan. This, however, has been discussed at length and will not be covered here. See, among others, for Henry V, Karen Newman, Fashioning Femininity and English Renaissance Drama (London: University of Chicago Press, 1991) and Parker, Literary Fat Ladies, pp. 126–154 and for The Dutch Courtesan by Jean Howard, Theatre of a City: The Places of London Comedy 1598–1642 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), especially pp. 114–161. Instead, I want to explore the possibilities of linguistic crossover and the various meanings of ‘enfranchisement’ in the early modern period which have not yet been discussed.
- 34.
Keir Elam argues that ‘the unvulgarized borrowing is the most “moral” or honest of morphological substitutes; since it necessarily advertises its own origins and thus its user’s debt.’ Elam, Shakespeare’s Universe of Discourse: Language-Games in the Comedies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 273. The Archbishop keeps his Latin separate and even provides the English translation, preventing the two languages to mix in any way and providing an example of ‘proper’ use. In contrast, English and French are constantly crossing each other’s boundaries, ‘improperly’.
- 35.
Calderwood, Metadrama in Shakespeare’s Henriad, pp. 165–166; Jean-Christophe Mayer, ‘The Ironies of Babel in Shakespeare’s “Henry V”’, in Representing France and the French in Early Modern English Drama (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 2008), pp. 127–141, 131–132.
- 36.
Calderwood, Metadrama in Shakespeare’s Henriad, p. 164.
- 37.
Calderwood, Metadrama in Shakespeare’s Henriad, p. 164.
- 38.
Calderwood, Metadrama in Shakespeare’s Henriad, p. 165.
- 39.
Coote, The English schoole-maister (1596), p. 206, Sig. Cc4 v.
- 40.
Coote, The English schoole-maister (1596), p. 206, Sig. Cc4 v.
- 41.
OED, ‘franc’ at http://www.oed.com [accessed 29 September 2017].
- 42.
Anne Curry, The Hundred Years War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 58.
- 43.
Ben Jonson, The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Ben Jonson, eds. David Bevington, Martin Butler, and Ian Donaldson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 7 Vols., Vol. 7, p. 563.
- 44.
The relation between money and language as a site of exchange, of language as a currency, is also noted by Richard Wilson who points out that the connection between franc and frankness, the quality of being candid, is reflected in King Lear where Cordelia marries France with truth as her only dower. Richard Wilson, Shakespeare in French Theory: King of Shadows, p. 262 fn.14.
- 45.
The ‘accents’ of Macmorris, Jamy and Fluellen are not phonetically represented in the text: ‘I sall be vary gud, gud feith, gud captens bath, and I sall quit you with gud leve, as I may pick occasion’ (3.2.102–4). Here the spelling of Macmorris’s speech does not necessarily make a Scottish accent when spoken. The accent is not being signified, only its difference from the speech of the other English characters.
- 46.
Blank, Broken English, p. 167. In a history play which features English war with the French, the context dictates that the French should be the enemy. Shakespeare retreats from dividing all characters in that way, instead dramatizing their linguistic difference, often synthesising these two languages into playful dialogue. It would be going too far to suggest that Shakespeare is harmoniously breaking down the barriers between nations. Instead he recognises the potential of breeding words. This is problematised by the context of the history play, the ending of which indeed is precisely this harmonious joining between King Henry and Princess Katherine. Henry refers to their own literal breeding as a unification of France and England. Yet the ideology of monarchical history is not Shakespeare’s, whose interest in joining and mixing is limited to language.
- 47.
John Marston, The Dutch Courtesan (1.2.103–4) in The Selected Plays of John Marston, eds. MacDonald P. Jackson and Michael Neill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). All further references are to this edition and are given in the text.
- 48.
She is characterised as a foreigner by her linguistic error: she is Dutch because she fails to speak English correctly, not because she speaks Dutch. This is not the case with Shakespeare’s representation of foreignness.
- 49.
Fleck, ‘Ick verstaw you niet’, p. 212.
- 50.
Marjorie Rubright, ‘Going Dutch in London City Comedy: Economies of Sexual and Sacred Exchange in John Marston’s “The Dutch Courtesan” (1605)’, English Literary Renaissance, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2010), 88–112, p. 100.
- 51.
The title page of The Dutch Courtesan (1605) announces the text is ‘as it was playd in the Blacke-Friars, by the Children of her Maiesties Reuels’, see EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 29 September 2017].
- 52.
Compare with Thomas Dekker who uses a kind of Dutched English to similar effect in The Shoemaker’s Holiday (1600), ed. Jonathan Gil Harris (London: Methuen Drama, 2008).
- 53.
Fleck also argues that stage foreigners must be understood in relation to the concept of ‘Englishness’. He argues that if we attend to representations of foreigners ‘we learn less about the Dutch or other foreigners than we do about the values, the hopes, and the fears of early modern English audiences imagined through these foreign figures.’ Andrew Fleck, ‘National Identity in Dekker’s The Shoemaker’s Holiday’, Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, Vol. 46, No. 2 (2006), 349–370, p. 352.
- 54.
Rubright, ‘Going Dutch in London City Comedy’, p. 111.
- 55.
Franceschina has many more loan words , also from her own language such as ‘frolic’ (2.2.71), which comes from the Dutch ‘vrolijk’, first used in English around 1548 according to the OED at http://www.oed.com [accessed 14 January 2018].
- 56.
Jean E. Howard, ‘Mastering Difference in The Dutch Courtesan’, Shakespeare Studies, Vol. 24 (1996), 105–117, p. 115.
- 57.
The use of this word precedes the first use given by the OED. It states ‘jumbler’ was first used in 1611 by Randle Cotgrave in Dictionarie of French & English Tongues to mean one who makes a disorderly confusion. The Dutch Courtesan (1605) precedes this but so does Joannes Ravisius Textor, A New Enterlude Called Thersytes (1562), which has ‘And iolye Iacke iumbler that iuggleth with a horne’, Sig. D2, r., see EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 12 June 2018]. Enfranchisement is also a liberation into English whereas ‘jumbler’ is less positive, signifying only a confused mix.
- 58.
Rubright, ‘Going Dutch in London City Comedy’, p. 95. Howard also argues of Franceschina that ‘her entry into the internationalized marketplace has left her a linguistic monster, called a Dutch courtesan, textually coded as an Italian and speaking a one-woman Babylonian dialect, as if all the tongues of Pentecost had visited her at once’. Howard, ‘Mastering Difference in The Dutch Courtesan’, p. 115.
- 59.
Freevill’s reference to ‘right names’ being unfashionable refers back to Plato’s discussion in the Cratylus on ‘the correctness of names’. See Cratylus, in The Dialogues of Plato, p. 204. A Neoplatonic belief in the naturalness of language is spurned by Marston in favour of language being unattached to things and determined by convention. Yet ironically this idea is expressed by Freevill—free will—whose name demonstrates the rightness of names given that his places importance on the power of individuality, an individuality that could create language.
- 60.
See ‘Dramatis Personae’, Marston, The Dutch Courtesan, eds. Jackson and Neill, p. 295.
- 61.
John Florio, World of Words, or Most Copious, and Exact Dictionarie in Italian and English (1598), p. 139, EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 29 September 2017]. See also Gordon Williams who notes ‘frig’ can mean ‘fuck’ or ‘masturbate’, A Dictionary of Sexual Language and Imagery in Shakespearean and Stuart Literature (London: Athlone Press, 1994), pp. 554–555.
- 62.
See the entry for ‘Spigot’ in the OED at http://www.oed.com [accessed 29 September 2018].
- 63.
Genesis, 11:1–9, The Bible: New Revised Standard Version. Cocledemoy is accusing Mulligrub of having mistaken language.
- 64.
See ‘catastrophonical’ in the OED at http://www.oed.com [accessed 23 February 2018]. The spelling has been regularised. In the quarto it is ‘catastrophomicall’, an even more unfamiliar word that does not even make it into the OED. See quarto, sig. H4r. EEBO at http://eebo.chadwyck.com [accessed 21 February 2018].
- 65.
Marston, The Dutch Courtesan, eds. Jackson and Neill, p. 501.
- 66.
Marston, The Dutch Courtesan, eds. Jackson and Neill, pp. 501–502.
- 67.
‘Directly’ here is a problematic term as it suggests that some words are more foreign than others, whereas Marston and Shakespeare use English in a way that continually blurs the boundaries of foreign and native.
- 68.
Mayer, ‘The Ironies of Babel’, p. 128.
- 69.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 173.
- 70.
For example, Franceschina says ‘ick sall have the rogue troat cut; and his love, and his friend, and all his affinity sall smart, sall die, sall hang’ but then seeing him enter she cries ‘O mine seet, dear’st, kindest, mine loving!’ (2.2.54–6, pp. 61–62).
- 71.
David Crane, ‘Introduction’, in The Dutch Courtesan (London: New Mermaid, 1997), p. xviii.
- 72.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 175.
- 73.
Margaret Tudeau-Clayton, ‘Shakespeare’s Extravagancy’, Shakespeare, Vol. 1, Nos. 1–2 (2005), 136–153, p. 146.
- 74.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 172.
- 75.
Mulcaster, Elementarie, p. 246.
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Leonard, A. (2020). Error and the Nation. In: Error in Shakespeare. Palgrave Shakespeare Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35180-9_4
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